1. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 1 Chapter 14: more about classes Static Members If a member variable is declared static, all objects of that class have access to a single instance of that variable. If a member function is declared static, it may be called before any instances of the class are defined and it may only use static variables.

2. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 2 Member Variable is Static int Y; static int X;

3. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 3 budget.h – Program #ifndef BUDGET_H #define BUDGET_H class Budget {private: static float corpBudget; float divBudget; public: Budget ( void ) { divBudget = 0; } void addBudget ( float b ) { divBudget += b; corpBudget += divBudget; } float getDivBudget ( void ) { return divBudget; } float getCorpBudget ( void ) { return corpBudget; } }; // Budget #endif budget.cpp – odd way to initialize float Budget::corpBudget = 250000;

4. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 4 Static Member Functions The syntax for a static member function is: static ( ); –A class’s static member variables come into existence before any instances of the class are created. –The static member functions use only static variables and are callable before any instances of the class are created..

5. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 5 A New budget.h – Program #ifndef BUDGET_H #define BUDGET_H class Budget { private: static float corpBudget; float divBudget; public: … static void mainOffice ( float ); }; // Budget #endif

6. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 6 budget.cpp – Program #include "budget.h" float Budget::corpBudget = 0; void Budget::mainOffice ( float moffice ) {corpBudget += moffice; } // Budget::mainOffice

7. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 7 Using budget.h – Program #include #include "budget.h" void main ( void ) {float amount; cout << "Enter the main office's budget request: "; cin >> amount; Budget::mainOffice(amount); …

8. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 8 Friends of Classes A friend is a function that is not a member of a class, but has access to the private members of the class. The syntax of a friend function is as follows and is included in the.h file for the class: friend ( );

9. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 9 auxil.h – Program #ifndef AUXIL_H #define AUXIL_H class Budget; // Forward declaration of Budget class class Aux { private: float auxBudget; public: Aux ( void ) { auxBudget = 0; } void addBudget ( float, Budget & ); float getDivBudget ( void ) { return auxBudget; } }; // Aux #endif

10. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 10 budget.h – Program #ifndef BUDGET_H #define BUDGET_H #include "auxil.h" class Budget { private: static float corpBudget; float divBudget; public: Budget ( void ) { divBudget = 0; } void addBudget ( float b ) { divBudget += b; corpBudget += divBudget; } float getDivBudget ( void ) { return divBudget; } float getCorpBudget ( void ) { return corpBudget; } static void mainOffice ( float ); friend void Aux::addBudget ( float, Budget & ); }; // Budget #endif

11. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 11 Friend Classes As mentioned before, it is possible to make an entire class a friend of another class. The Budget class could make the Aux class its friend with the following declaration: friend class Aux; Note – generally a “friend” is bad as it violates the encapsulation principle.

12. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 12 Memberwise Assignment The = operator may be used to assign one object to another, or to initialize one object with another object’s data. By default, each member of one object is copied to its counterpart in the other object.

13. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 13 Copy Constructors A copy constructor is a special constructor, called whenever a new object is created and initialized with another object’s data. Assume the class Set has a member variable as follows: bool *member which is dynamically allocated. Consider the following declarations: –Set x(5,15); // 15 possible members, 5 is a member –Set y = x; // Copy constructor is called but – is only a shallow copy, so when set y changes, set x does to

14. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 14 The Default Copy Constructor If a class doesn’t have a copy constructor, C++ automatically creates a default copy constructor. The default copy constructor performs a memberwise assignment.

15. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 15 The this Pointer *this is a special built-in pointer that is available in any member function. *this contains the address of the object that called the member function. It is the name for ME.

16. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 16 Operator Overloading C++ allows you to redefine how standard operators work when used with class objects.

17. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 17 Issues of Operator Overloading You can change an operator’s entire meaning when you overload it. (But don’t.) You cannot change the number of operands taken by an operator. For example, the + symbol must always be a binary operator. Likewise, ++ and -- must always be unary operators.

18. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 18 Operators That can be Overloaded

19. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 19 Because our unionSet has same arguments and return value as +, we can simply make a name change: Set & Set::operator+(Set & arg2){ Set *res; int min; if(memberMax>arg2.memberMax){ min=arg2.memberMax; res = new Set(*this); } else { res = new Set(arg2); min = memberMax; } for (int i=0; i < min; i++) res->member[i]= arg2.member[i] || member[i]; return *res; };

20. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 20 Overloading the Prefix ++ Operator Set & Set::operator++(void){ bool * member1 = new bool[memberMax+1]; for (int i=0; i < memberMax; i++) member1[i] = member[i]; delete [] member; member = member1; member[memberMax]=false; memberMax++; return *this; }

21. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 21 Overloading the Postfix ++ Operator Set &Set::operator++(int x){// parameter is never used! bool * member1 = new bool[memberMax+1]; for (int i=0; i < memberMax; i++) member1[i] = member[i]; delete [] member; member = member1; member[memberMax]=false; memberMax++; return *this; }

22. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 22 Overloading Relational Operators bool Set::operator<(Set & arg2){// subset for us int min = memberMax; if (arg2.memberMax < min) min = arg2.memberMax; for(int i=0; i <min;i++) if (member[i] && !arg2.member[i]) return false; if (memberMax >min) for (i=min; i < memberMax;i++) if (member[i]) return false; return true; }

23. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 23 Overloading the == Operator bool Set::operator==(Set & arg2){ if (memberMax!=arg2.memberMax) return false; for (int i=0; i < memberMax;i++) if (member[i]!=arg2.member[i]) return false; return true; }

24. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 24 Overloading the << Operator Note – this cannot be a member function of Set as the first argument is not a Set ostream &operator<< ( ostream &strm, Set &obj ) { strm << “Whatever I want”; strm<< “ – but be careful about member variables”; strm << “Since I’m not a member, I can’t access them”; } // operator<<

25. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 25 Overloading the >> Operator istream &operator>> ( istream &strm, Set &obj ) {int ele; strm >> ele; Set.addToSet(x); //or make friend or use input() member } // operator>>

26. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 26 Overloading the [] Operator In addition to the traditional operators, C++ allows you to change the way the [] (subscript) symbols work.

27. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 27 intarry.h – Program #ifndef INTARRY_H #define INTARRY_H Class IntArray { private: int *aptr; int arraySize; void memError ( void ); void subError ( void ); public: IntArray ( int ); IntArray ( const IntArray & ); ~IntArray ( void ); int size ( void ) { return arraySize }; int &operator[] ( const int & ); }; // IntArray #endif

28. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 28 intarray.cpp – Program IntArray::IntArray ( int s ) { arraySize = s; aptr = new int [s]; if ( aptr == NULL ) memError(); for ( int count = 0; count < arraySize; count++ ) *( aptr + count ) = 0; } // IntArray::IntArray IntArray::IntArray ( const IntArray &obj ) { arraySize = obj.arraySize; aptr = new int [arraySize]; if ( aptr == NULL ) memError(); for ( count = 0; count < arraySize; count ++ ) *( aptr + count ) = *( obj.aptr + count ); } // IntArray::IntArray

29. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 29 intarray.cpp – Program (cont) IntArray::~IntArray ( void ) { if ( arraySize > 0 ) delete [] aptr; } // IntArray::~IntArray void IntArray::memError ( void ) { cout << "ERROR: Cannot allocate memory.\n"; exit( 1 ); } IntArray::memError

30. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 30 intarray.cpp – Program (cont) void IntArray::subError ( void ) { cout << "ERROR: Subscript out of range.\n"; exit( 1 ); } // IntArray::subError int &IntArray::operator[] ( const int &sub ) { if ( sub arraySize ) subError(); return aptr[sub]; } // IntArray::operator[]

31. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 31 Object Conversion via overloading Special operator functions may be written to convert a class object to any other type. FeetInches::operator float ( void ) { float temp = feet; temp += (inches / 12.0); return temp; } // FeetInches::operator float

32. Starting Out with C++, 3 rd Edition 32 Note: No return type is specified in the function header for the previous example. Because it is a FeetInches -to- float conversion function, it will always return a float.