1. 1 16-035 More Ada Constructs 7 Oct. 2002

2. 2 16-035 Today’s Constructs Derived types Record types Array types Visibility and scope Subprogram arguments Exception handling Case statement

3. 3 16-035 Derived Types Ada is a “strongly-typed” language —No automatic conversions —Different types can only interact using operations specifically defined for the types To even add more strength to types, Ada allows the user to create new types derived from other types. type Meters_t is new Float; type Yards_t is new Float; Distance_To_Paris : Meters_t; Distance_To_NY : Yards_t; Distance_To_Paris := Distance_To_NY + 1000.0; -- Illegal! However, explicit conversions can be performed Distance_To_Paris := Meters_t (Distance_To_NY * 0.9144) + 1000.0;

4. 4 16-035 Record Types Comparable to “structures” in other languages —One object contains components of various types type Vehicle_State is record Position : Position_type; Velocity : Velocity_type; Linear_Acceleration : Linear_Acceleration_type; Inertial_Attitude : Attitude_type; Attitude_Rate : Attitude_Rate_type; Att_Accel : Att_Accel_type; -- Yes, you can abbreviate end record; Ada records also can have “discriminants”

5. 5 16-035 Discriminated Records* type Matrix_t is array (Int_32_t range <>, Int_32_t range <>) of Single_Float_t; Want to have a Trace function for a square matrix —Would need to check for non-square —Would need to check ranges (someone could have created an object My_Array : Matrix_t (1.. 3, 0.. 2); ) Instead, create a discriminated record type: subtype Pos_32_t is Int_32_t range 1.. Int_32_t’last; type Square_Matrix_t (Order : Pos_32_t := 3) is record Matrix : Matrix_t (1.. Order, 1.. Order); end record; Now, the compiler will make sure the input is of the correct form Taken from “Programming in Ada95”, 2 nd Edition, John Barnes

6. 6 16-035 Variant Records The discriminant can also be used to create different records depending on the value of the discriminant type Error_t is (None, RAM_Scrub, Exception); type One_Hz_Telem_Data_t (Error_Kind : Error_t := None) is record case Error_Kind is when None => null; when RAM_Scrub => Bad_Location : Address_t; when Exception => Exception_data : Exception_Info_t; end case; end record;

7. 7 16-035 Discriminant Can Change Dynamically or Can be Constant M : Square_Matrix_t := (3, (1.. 3 => (1.. 3 => 0.0))); N : Square_Matrix_t (Order => 4) := (4, (1.. 4 => (1.. 4 => 1.0)));. M := N; -- Legal N := M; -- Illegal (Order can not change for N)

8. 8 16-035 Array Types Array types are easy —Multidimensional arrays are allowed »Matrix_t seen previously —Arrays of any other types are allowed, including arrays »Different syntax A (1,2) for 2-dim array A (1) (2) for array of arrays Very good idea to always have a well-constrained subtype for array types (or discriminated records with arrays) M : Square_Matrix_t; -- How much memory will this take?

9. 9 16-035 Visibility and Scope Good News : Not every name used in multiple files must be global —In fact, only “Library-level” names are globally defined »Library-level names are packages and subprograms that are declared at the outermost level of a compilation unit Almost all global names are packages One notable exception: function Unchecked_Conversion Bad News : Lots of typing to tell the compiler what you want —Ada.Text_IO.Integer_IO.Put Not-so-bad News : “use” statement; “renames” statement with Ada.Text_IO;... use Ada.Text_IO.Integer_IO;-- Makes all declarations in package -- locally visible

10. 10 16-035 Scope Example* 1.procedure Level_1 is 2. Count, Index : INTEGER := 1; 3. procedure Level_2 is 4. Index, Count : INTEGER := 2; 5. procedure Level_3 is 6. Count : INTEGER := 3; 7. begin 8. Count := -- Count from line 6 9. Level_1.Count; -- Count from line 2 10. end Level_3; 11. procedure Level_3_Prime is 12. Data, Index, Count : INTEGER := 3; 13. Outer_Index : INTEGER renames Level_1.Level_2.Index; 14. begin 15. Count := Outer_Index -- Count from line 12 16. + Level_1.Level_2.Count; -- Count from line 4 17. end Level_3_Prime; 18. begin 19. null; 20. end Level_2; 21.... 22.end Level_1; 23.* http://www.swcp.com/~dodrill/controlled/ada83doc/ada83tutor.html

11. 11 16-035 The “Use” Clause Makes names visible without qualification —Extremely useful to make readable code —Biggest problem is enumeration literals package Drawing_Package is type Colors_t is (Red, Blue, Yellow);... with Drawing_Package; procedure Use_It is C : Drawing_Package.Colors_t := Drawing_Package.Red; -- Tedious —Somewhat bad in that it makes it more difficult to find things Majority opinion – Use sparingly, so maintainers can easily find things Minority opinion – Tools can help find things; Ada has enough necessary tedium; don’t impose more

12. 12 16-035 Subprogram Arguments Procedures can have arguments of 3 kinds —“in” means treat as a constant inside procedure —“out” means it must be written before it is read (similar to an uninitialized variable) »The value is given to the caller when the procedure exits —“in out” can be read and written »The value is copied in at the start, and copied out at the end —Note that copying or referencing is meant for example; the actual parameter passing mechanism is defined differently for different kinds of data, and in some cases is left up to the compiler

13. 13 16-035 Exception Handling Exceptions are handled at the innermost scope where there is a relevant exception handler, out to the task level —For the moment, assume only 1 task in the program X := F(G(H(I(J(X))))); If an exception occurs in function J, if J has an exception handler for the specific exception, it will be handled locally —None of the outer functions will know the exception occurred If J does not have an exception handler for that exception, it is propagated to the next level

14. 14 16-035 Exception Propagation with Ada.Text_IO; use Ada.Text_IO; procedure Exception_Test is type My_Int is range 1.. 5; Y : My_Int; function Level_1 (X : My_Int) return My_Int is Y : My_Int; begin Y := X + 10; -- raises Constraint_Error... -- Does not matter. Never executes these statements return X; -- Does not execute this exception when Program_Error => return My_Int’Last; -- Attributes are useful when End_Error => return My_Int’First; end Level_1; begin Y := Level_1 (1); put (“Made it”); exception when Constraint_Error => Put (“Constraint_Error in Y”); -- Y has no value end Exception_Test;

15. 15 16-035 Output Constraint_Error in Y Program exited normally

16. 16 16-035 What Happens if no Exception Handler? raised CONSTRAINT_ERROR : exception_test.adb:8 Exception propagated to outermost level of current task Task (if no exception handler) ends Up to runtime system what to do next —For GNAT, see above for single task case —For multi-task case, tasks just disappear »GVD allows breakpoint on any exception »AdaGIDE has option to print traceback Shows the call stack when run inside AdaGIDE

17. 17 16-035 Case Statement X : My_Positive := 1;... case (X) is when 1 =>...-- Any sequence of statements (if X = 1) when 2 =>... -- Any sequence of statements (if X = 2) when 3.. 10 =>... -- Any sequence of statements (if X = 3, 4, or 5) when others =>... -- Any sequence of statements (X = anything else) end case Note, no need for “break” statement; after relevant sequence of statements, jump to “end case”