1. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Chapter 9 – Task In The Organizational Context HCI: Developing Effective Organizational Information Systems Dov Te’eni Jane Carey Ping Zhang

2. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Learning Objectives Know the attributes of the organizational tasks pertinent to HCI and how they provide the context of tool-level task. Understand the need for task analysis in HCI. Understand how the work context affects HCI design and differentiates between structured and non- structured tasks. Understand how organizational-level tasks are decomposed hierarchically and mapped to tool-level task, which are described by the TSSL model. Understand and apply a method for analyzing the HCI requirements for decision support.

3. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Project Selection Project Planning Requirements User-Needs Test Determination Context User Task Analysis Analysis Analysis EvaluationFormative Metrics Evaluation Alternative Selection Interface Specification Formative Evaluation Metaphor DesignMedia Design Dialogue DesignPresentation Design CodingFormative Summative Evaluation Human Concerns: Physical Cognitive Affective Usefulness Implementation Project Selection and Planning Analysis Design HCI Principles and Guidelines Requirements Determination User Needs Test Task Analysis Context Analysis

4. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Introduction Dowell and Long (1989) regard the workers and the information systems as “work systems” that affect some domain (e.g. customer services) through work aimed at achieving organizational goals by means of a set of tasks. Eventually, task analysis; determines how task achieves the work must dictate not only which tasks achieve work but also how they are allocated to the computer and the user.

5. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Introduction Topics covered include task, work and their relation to HCI that begins with; Examining the task, at both the organizational level and the tool level, Concentrates on characteristics of organizational tasks and finally, Examining the impact of work on user requirements.

6. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Introduction The HCI developer needs to understand; How the work is structured and performed in order to understand how workers divide and coordinate their work into specific tasks. The dynamics of work patterns to recognize opportunities to support work over time. The workplace, with its computers and other artefacts, does not always behave as expected. People behave in unpredicted and unplanned ways.

7. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Introduction Task is central to HCI. The TSSL model describes HCI by representing the user’s view of the task and its human-computer implementation. The organizational context affects HCI in two ways; Characteristics of the organizational tasks and the workplace affect user behavior and user requirements Specific organizational tasks map onto specific tool-level tasks.

8. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 2.0 Characteristics of Organizational Tasks Selecting an office View two sites Select two sites to view Define view attributes Computer displays list of sites, and user selects two sites Each site is identified by name and picture. Users can select or deselect a site. User points at a name or picture and then selects an unselected or deselects a selected. Sites are ordered by name. Sites are displayed in a checkbox list and users point or tab to a checkbox and either click or press any key on the keyboard. Figure 9.3 Hierarchical task decomposition, with both the organizational-level tasks and the tool-level task described by the TSSL levels of how to operate the computer. Organizational Level task Tool Level task Note : Broken lines indicate Incomplete descriptions TSSLTSSL

9. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 2.0 Characteristics Of Organizational Level Task Organizational-Level Task :- A worker’s designed (intended and planned) effort to accomplish an organizational demand. Structured Task :- Task that is well defined, has clear and explicit goals, and can be accomplished by following predefined procedures. Non-structured Task :- Task that is ill-defined, has ambiguous goals (if it has any at all), and has no explicit procedures that can ensure successful completion of the task.

10. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Table 9.1 summarizes the impact of task characteristics on the focus of HCI design. It emphasizes the differences in the impact of different types of task on the users and their performance because different types of task require different resources. The different impacts, in turn, determine the corresponding type of support. 2.0 Characteristics Of Organizational Level Task

11. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Table 9.1 The importance of Task Structure to HCI Type and Context of TaskExampleMain Implications Structured, routine, uniform, repetitive tasks Intensive data entry Minimal user effort and maximum speed; minimal learning time; errors due to inattention and boredom; frustration with ill-fitted interfaces (e.g. no shortcuts); physiological stress Structured to semi- structured, routine but diverse tasks Word processingMinimal user effort and maximum speed for certain operations; piecemeal but efficient learning; recall and skill necessary to operate; errors due to misapplication of rules; fit to specific tasks and to specific work habits; limited problem solving and calculations Unstructured tasksSupported decision making Comprehension; creativity and flexibility; complex problem solving and planning; simulations, calculations’ and mental models; errors and biases in judgments; fit to individual style Multiple tasks concurrentOperating several office systems Managing attention to several task; controlling states and operations in several systems; confusion and overload leading to errors and frustration Interrelated tasksProject management Comprehension; complex problem solving; memory; simulation and planning; flexibility

12. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3.0 Work At The Office As Context – Tasks and their interrelations Transaction Processing System (TPS) Organizational Processing System (OIS) Management Information System (MIS) Decision Support System (DSS) 3.1 Characteristics Of Different Types Of Work The variety of tasks found in organizations is very large and best reflected in the various types of computer system i.e., The variety of tasks and of users is the basis for examining the implications on the type of required computer support

13. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3.1 Characteristics Of Different Types Of Work Often very unstructured. Involves many interrelated tasks. Managerial work probably the most complex that combines most types of tasks (Table 9.2). Professional Work :-

14. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Table 9.2 Propositions about Managerial Work (Adapted from Kurke & Aldrich, 1983) Managers perform a great quantity of work with little free time (34 different activities per day, 44 hours a week). Managerial jobs are characterized by brevity, variety, and fragmentation (63 % of activities lasted less than 9 minutes; only 5 % lasted more than an hour). Managers favor verbal over written contacts (desk work and tours take up only 29 % of their time and the rest is for phone calls and meetings). Scheduled meetings consume more time than any other activity (4 meetings a day with half involving 3 people or less). Managers link their organization with outsiders in a variety of ways (external contacts took 52 % of verbal contacts; internal contacts over a third).

15. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc With reference to Table 9.1, the description of work environment highlights the aspects of human information processing that are more likely to suffer from the limitations and biases mentioned previously; The typical manager is likely to suffer from information overload. To function effectively (as monitor, disseminator, spokesperson) information must flow to and from the manager quickly. The cognitive limitations on memory and processing become a critical threshold. Support is needed to: Reduce the amount and complexity of information processing Increasing the capability of memory, processing, attention and comprehension. 3.2 Information Processing Functions Supported By HCI

16. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Table 9.1 The importance of Task Structure to HCI Characteristics of Managerial Work Characteristics of Clerical Support Work User Limitations Information overload Memory, attention, cognitive processing Concurrent tasks overloadConcurrent task overloadCognitive management Complex problem solvingMemory, cognitive processing Use of multiple media for communication Perceptual processing

17. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3.3 Work Modeling The application of the ideas mentioned earlier (the types of tasks, the interrelations among tasks, and the work habits of the workers who perform the tasks) in a particular work setting for a particular computer system (or systems) may require a special analysis. One approach that begins the development of IS by looking at the work context is the “Contextual Design” (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).

18. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1. Contextual inquiry 2. Work modeling 3. Consolidation 4. Work design 5. User environment design 6. Test with customers 7. Putting into practice 3.3 Work Modeling Contextual has seven parts :- NOTE:- The first 3 parts are the main concern of this chapter

19. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3.3 Work Modeling 1. Contextual inquiry : Determines the stakeholders and attempts to model how they work in practice. Using a variety of interview techniques, contextual inquiry represents the users’ work habits, motivation, needs, and desires.

20. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3.3 Work Modeling 2. Work modeling : Represents the tasks performed by individual workers and interacting workers. Modeling techniques resemble objects orientation tools and diagrams. One diagram represents the allocation of tasks to workers and another represents the interrelations between tasks. Additionally, each task is described individually (like a flowchart). Moreover, modeling also includes the interactions between workers, both the formal interactions around tasks and the informal interactions. Work modeling goes further, however, by looking closely at the physical environment. It seeks to identify how workers use physical artifacts such as notes and desks to manage their work. (E.g. how a worker arranges his desk may indicate certain needs that would have to be satisfied in a paperless office.

21. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3.3 Work Modeling 3. Consolidation : This is needed when (assumed in contextual design) the design is done in teams. It combines the information gained from individual interviews to form a holistic view of work.

22. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4.0 Decision Making As Organizational Task 4.1 The Decision Life-Cycle as a Basis for Determining Requirements Helps to identify the opportunities for supporting the user (Te’eni, 1992). Should not be confused with the HCI Development Life Cycle, which describes how to develop a computerized system. Defines the main activities involved in a decision-making process and how they progress from one activity to another. The life cycle can then be used to determine what resources are needed for each activity. what the user’s limitations and strengths are in performing the activity what functionalities are needed to overcome the limitations and extend the strengths. 5 main stages of the decision life cycle are shown in Figure 9.4.

23. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Figure 9.4 Decision Life-Cycle Pre-decisional activities Information acquisition Structuring and clarifying information Evaluation of alternatives and choice Post-decisional activities

24. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4.1 Decision Life-Cycle 1. Pre-decisional Activities : Include complex processes such as problem detection, strategy formulation, and strategy selection. 2. Information Acquisition : Includes all forms of obtaining information from external sources as well as retrieving information from one’s own memory.

25. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4.1 Decision Life-Cycle 3. Structuring and Clarifying Information : Involves complex processes aimed at making sense of the decision situation and the available information so as to be able to make a decision. 4. Evaluation of Alternatives and Choice : Is the most obvious part of decision making. Involves comparisons of alternatives with some structure defined in the previous stage.

26. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4.1 Decision Life-Cycle 5. Post-decisional Activities : Is often valuable to examine the activities after the choice is made in order to identify further opportunities of supporting the user. It is important to consider the affective aspects that follow from a decision i.e., the user’s confidence in and conformance with the decision made. Learning from feedback about the decision and revising accordingly all or part of the earlier stages in the Decision Life Cycle.

27. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1. Availability (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). People tend to use information that readily available to them and ignore information that is less available, even if it is from reliable sources. 2. Confirming information ((Hogarth, 1987). People tend to seek and accept information that confirms rather than disconfirms their expectations. 3. Selective perceptions (Hogarth, 1987). The bias toward confirming information is the form of selective perception. 4.1 Decision Life-Cycle Information acquisition, both from external and internal (memory) sources, is subject to several biases. Consider the following 3 biases;

28. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4.1 Decision Life-Cycle The limitations and biases discussed in relation to each of the 5 stages in the Decision Life Cycle imply several types of support for users engaged in decision making. An attempt to organize the needs for supporting decision making is shown in Table 9.4.

29. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1. Working with the system, appropriate functionality can reduce the user’s effort in each step of the Decision Life Cycle (Figure 9.4). 2. It can reduce errors (e.g. in computation). 3. It can affect the user’s selection of decision strategy by making one strategy more attractive to the user than other strategies (Te’eni, 1989; Todd & Benbasat, 1992). 4.1 Decision Life-Cycle How system’s functionality affects user behavior;

30. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Table 9.4 Common Needs of Decision Making (Silver, 1991) Fuller exploration of alternatives. Earlier detection of problems. Coping with multiple objectives. Treat risk. Reduce cognitive biases. Creativity Communication Structure decision-making process Learning

31. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 4.2 Levels of Interaction in Decision Making (Figure 9.5) An example of the application of the Hierarchical Task Decomposition. Find the best location for a new shop List possible options Predict no. of customers Estimate costsView the sites Computer displays all options for new shop - Computer presents customers forecasts template - User inputs parameters -Computer calculates and displays forecasts -Computer presents cost template - User inputs parameters -Computer calculates and displays costs -Computer displays lists of sites - User selects one -Computer displays the site - Users view it Tool level Decision level

32. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1. Use of internal representations. 2. Pursuit of goals. 3. Chunking of information. 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support 5.1 An Overview of the Method Wane Zachary (1998) was one of the first to integrate design tools for DSS based on cognitive engineering. His methodology assumed that human decision making depends on;

33. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 1. Working memory. 2. Cognitive processing. 3. Retrieval from long-term memory. 4. Numerical operations. 5. Projection in time and space. 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support 5.1 An Overview of the Method Furthermore, human decision making is limited by 5 factors:

34. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support 5.1 An Overview of the Method - Figure 9.7 describes a process of designing a DSS that is adapted from Zachary’s methodology. It begins with an analysis of the task and its constraints, continues with a specification of the functionality required, and then proceeds to a design of the technology - Zachary’s methodology assumes that characteristics of decision making lead to several recurring problems, which can be minimized by a systematic process of analysis and design.

35. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support Figure 9.7 Analysis and Design of DSS 1. Situational and Functional Analysis  (organizational context, work style, task attributes, objective and perceived effectiveness, task dynamics, decision process, data and knowledge resources, problem representation, required judgments, errors) 2. Constraint Analysis  (human limitations and biases, data constraints, communication failures, stress) 3. Propose New Functionality  (redefine elements of the decision process and the allocation of task to human and computer) 4. Design HCI, Models, Data, and Control  (design detailed human-computer interfaces, computerized decision techniques, data management, and control over the system operation throughout the human-computer interaction; develop prototype) 5. Reanalyze Work with New DSS and Modify  (for objective and perceived effectiveness and for new constraints)

36. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support The essence of this stage is to define the decision problem and decompose its goal into sub-goals. Its main tool is a protocol for collecting and analyzing information Its product is a Summary Tabulation of Aiding Requirements STAR Table (Figure 9.8) The goal decomposition should; concentrate on concrete goals work top-down from the more general to the more specific goals 5.2 Situational and Functional Analysis

37. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Figure 9.8 STAR Table for Decision Support (adapted from Zachary, 1988) Decision situation: (Name of decision situation) Task dynamics: (state types – closed loop, iterative, unfolding, or single instance) Situational objective: (highest level goal that the Decision Maker (DM) is trying to achieve) Value criteria: (list of individual criteria by which alternative decisions are evaluated) Underlying process: (a brief description of the observable process in which the decision situation is embedded) Information environment: Inputs (list of available information items) Outputs (list of information items that are created) Parameters (list of information items that do not change value) Intermediate reasoning / analysis steps: (list of intermediate reasoning steps or types of analysis that the DM typically applies in the baseline process) Representation: (a simple description including both the external world and the internal world) Judgment: (required judgments, which are unstructured and intuitive activities)

38. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support Identifies the decision-making needs that arise from the constraints on unaided or the baseline decision-making process. The general direction is; to refer to common limitations or biases in in decision making to examine what is relevant to the particular decision situation as characterized in the prior stage of situational and functional analysis. 5.3 Constraint Analysis

39. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 5.0 A Method For Task Analysis And Decision Support As stated earlier in Table 9.4 (Common Needs of Decision Making by Silver, 1991) in helping to overcome the limitations, Zachary (1988) too offers a similar list as shown in Table 9.5 (Common Limitations on Decision Making – Zachary, 1988) and relates them to the categories of the decision situation (Figure 9.8 - STAR Table for Decision Support – Zachary, 1988). Tables 9.4 (Silver, 1991) and 9.5 (Zachary, 1988) are no more than checklists that need to be matched with the analysis documented in the STAR Table. The product of this stage is a list of specific decision-making difficulties. 5.3 Constraint Analysis

40. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc Table 9.5 Common Limitations on Decision Making (Zachary, 1988) Inability to predict processes It is difficult to project processes due to limitations on working memory, attention to detail, and numeric processing. Possible outcomes are projecting with errors, relying on suboptimal techniques, and ignoring information. Difficult in combining attributes and objectives that are competing It is difficult to combine ill-defined objectives or conflicting objectives, due to limitations on working memory and numeric processing. Possible outcomes are incorrect integrated criteria and omission of important attributes or objectives. Inability to manage information Due to limitations on working memory and long-term memory and also limited attention. Possible outcomes are errors in using the information and ignoring information intentionally and unintentionally. Difficult in analyzing and reasoning Limitations on knowledge, time, and effort make it difficult to formulate an effective decision strategy or to carry it out correctly. Difficulties in visualizing It is difficult to visualize abstract manipulations and semantic data. It is easier to visualize concrete situations but difficult to manipulate them, due to limitations on working memory and cognitive processing. A major outcome is limiting the ability to manipulate information and therefore producing less effective solutions.

41. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc SUMMARY Positions HCI within the organizational context by addressing task and work. Differentiate between task at the organizational level and task at the tool level and position both on one task hierarchy, where tool-level tasks are the means for accomplishing the higher organizational-level task. Looks at the characteristics of organizational tasks and work to help define user requirements by identifying needs or difficulties. Eventually looks at methods for analyzing and decomposing tasks. This Chapter;

42. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc SUMMARY WORK is the ensemble of interrelated TASKS and WORKERS who perform the task. The general characteristics of a TASK, particularly the task’s degree of structure, determine the types of computer support that are most appropriate in order to boost performance, ease work, and generally satisfy the user. The general characteristics of WORK, particularly the types of users and the interrelations between tasks performed by the same person or groups of workers, also dictate the limitations users face and the computer support they require. The analysis of tasks in the work context they are performed is the basis for determining user requirements and designing HCI.