1. Communication and Computer Supported Cooperative Work Human Computer Interaction

2. Overview All computer systems, single user or multi-user, interact with the work-groups and organizations in which they are used All computer systems, single user or multi-user, interact with the work-groups and organizations in which they are used Need to understand normal human-human communication Need to understand normal human-human communication face-to-face communication involves eyes, face and body face-to-face communication involves eyes, face and body conversation can be analysed to establish its detailed structure conversation can be analysed to establish its detailed structure

3. Overview This can then be applied to text-based conversation, which has This can then be applied to text-based conversation, which has reduced feedback for confirmation reduced feedback for confirmation less context to disambiguate utterances less context to disambiguate utterances slower pace of interaction slower pace of interaction but is more easily reviewed but is more easily reviewed Group working is more complex than that of a single person Group working is more complex than that of a single person influenced by the physical environment influenced by the physical environment experiments are more difficult to control and record experiments are more difficult to control and record field studies must take into account the social situation field studies must take into account the social situation

4. Social nature of humans Humans are inherently social creatures Humans are inherently social creatures We live together, work together, learn together, play together, etc. We live together, work together, learn together, play together, etc. Therefore, we need to develop interactive systems that support and extend these kinds of social interactions Therefore, we need to develop interactive systems that support and extend these kinds of social interactions Communication and collaboration Communication and collaboration

5. Face-to-face communication Most primitive and most subtle form of communication Most primitive and most subtle form of communication Often seen as the paradigm for computer mediated communication Often seen as the paradigm for computer mediated communication

6. Face-to-face communication Transfer effects Transfer effects carry expectations into electronic media carry expectations into electronic media People are adaptable – eg “over” People are adaptable – eg “over” But also expect they can use existing norms (eg: cultural) But also expect they can use existing norms (eg: cultural) sometimes with disastrous results sometimes with disastrous results may interpret failure as rudeness of colleague may interpret failure as rudeness of colleague e.g., personal space video may destroy mutual impression of distance happily the “glass wall” effect helps e.g., personal space video may destroy mutual impression of distance happily the “glass wall” effect helps

7. Eye contact to convey interest and establish social presence to convey interest and establish social presence video may spoil direct eye contact video may spoil direct eye contact but poor quality video better than audio only but poor quality video better than audio only Establishing context – focus of the conversation Establishing context – focus of the conversation

8. Gestures and body language much of our communication is through our bodies much of our communication is through our bodies gesture (and eye gaze) used for deictic reference gesture (and eye gaze) used for deictic reference Deictic – “directly pointing out” (oed.com) Deictic – “directly pointing out” (oed.com) head and shoulders video loses this head and shoulders video loses this So: close focus for eye contact or wide focus for body language? So: close focus for eye contact or wide focus for body language?

9. Back channels Alison: Do you fancy that film, err [1] -`The Green' – um [2] – it starts at eight. Alison: Do you fancy that film, err [1] -`The Green' – um [2] – it starts at eight. Brian: Great! Brian: Great! Not just the words! Not just the words! Back channel responses from Brian at 1 and 2 Back channel responses from Brian at 1 and 2 quizzical at 1 quizzical at 1 affirmative at 2 affirmative at 2 Back channels include: Back channels include: nods and grimaces nods and grimaces shrugs of the shoulders shrugs of the shoulders grunts and raised eyebrows grunts and raised eyebrows Utterance begins vague then sharpens up just enough Utterance begins vague then sharpens up just enough

10. Back channels II Restricting media restricts back channels Restricting media restricts back channels Video … loss of body language Video … loss of body language Audio … loss of facial expression Audio … loss of facial expression Half Duplex … lose most voice back channel responses Half Duplex … lose most voice back channel responses Text Based … nothing left! Text Based … nothing left! Back channels used for turn-taking: Back channels used for turn-taking: Speaker offers the floor (fraction of a second gap) Speaker offers the floor (fraction of a second gap) Listener requests the floor (facial expression, small noise) Listener requests the floor (facial expression, small noise) Grunts, ‘um's and ‘ah's, can be used by the: Grunts, ‘um's and ‘ah's, can be used by the: listener to claim the floor listener to claim the floor speaker to hold the floor speaker to hold the floor But often too quiet for half-duplex channels But often too quiet for half-duplex channels Trans-continental conferences - special problems Trans-continental conferences - special problems lag can exceed the turn taking gap lag can exceed the turn taking gap leads to a monologue! leads to a monologue!

11. Basic conversational structure Alison: Do you fancy that film Alison: Do you fancy that film Brian: the uh (500 ms) with the black cat –”The Green whatsit” Brian: the uh (500 ms) with the black cat –”The Green whatsit” Alison: yeah, go at uh (looks at watch 1.2 s) twenty to? Alison: yeah, go at uh (looks at watch 1.2 s) twenty to? Brian: sure Brian: sure Smallest unit is the utterance Smallest unit is the utterance Turn taking … utterances usually alternate Turn taking … utterances usually alternate

12. Basic conversational structure Simplest structure - adjacency pair Simplest structure - adjacency pair Adjacency pairs may nest; Adjacency pairs may nest; Brian: Do you want some gateau? (X) Brian: Do you want some gateau? (X) Alison: is it very fattening? (Y) Alison: is it very fattening? (Y) Brian: yes, very (Y) Brian: yes, very (Y) Alison: and lots of chocolate? (Z) Alison: and lots of chocolate? (Z) Brian: masses (Z) Brian: masses (Z) Alison: I'll have a big slice then. (X) Alison: I'll have a big slice then. (X) Structure is: B-x, A-y, B-y, A-z, B-z, A-x Structure is: B-x, A-y, B-y, A-z, B-z, A-x Inner pairs often for clarification Inner pairs often for clarification But, simple pairing is not always possible or useful But, simple pairing is not always possible or useful

13. Context in conversation Utterances are highly ambiguous Utterances are highly ambiguous We use context to disambiguate We use context to disambiguate Brian: (points) that post is leaning a bit Brian: (points) that post is leaning a bit Alison: that's the one you put in Alison: that's the one you put in

14. Context in conversation Two types of context: Two types of context: external context external context reference to the environment reference to the environment e.g., Brian's “that” = the thing pointed to [deictic reference] e.g., Brian's “that” = the thing pointed to [deictic reference] internal context internal context reference to the previous conversation reference to the previous conversation e.g., Alison's “that” = the last thing spoken of e.g., Alison's “that” = the last thing spoken of

15. Context in conversation Often contextual utterances involve indexicals: Often contextual utterances involve indexicals: that, this, he, she, it that, this, he, she, it These may be used for internal or external context These may be used for internal or external context Also descriptive phrases may be used: Also descriptive phrases may be used: external: “the corner post is leaning a bit” external: “the corner post is leaning a bit” internal: “the post you mentioned” internal: “the post you mentioned”

16. Common Ground Resolving context depends on meaning Resolving context depends on meaning participants must share meaning participants must share meaning so must have shared knowledge so must have shared knowledge Conversation constantly negotiates meaning Conversation constantly negotiates meaning process called grounding process called grounding Alison: So, you turn right beside the river. Alison: So, you turn right beside the river. Brian: past the pub. Brian: past the pub. Alison: yeah - Alison: yeah - Each utterance is assumed to be: Each utterance is assumed to be: relevant - furthers the current topic relevant - furthers the current topic helpful - comprehensible to listener helpful - comprehensible to listener

17. Focus and breakdown Context resolved relative to current dialogue focus Context resolved relative to current dialogue focus Alison: Oh, look at your roses – Alison: Oh, look at your roses – Brian: mmm, but I've had trouble with green fly. Brian: mmm, but I've had trouble with green fly. Alison: they're the symbol of the English summer. Alison: they're the symbol of the English summer. Brian: green fly? Brian: green fly? Alison: no roses silly! Alison: no roses silly! Tracing topics is one way to analyse conversation. Tracing topics is one way to analyse conversation. Alison begins - topic is roses Alison begins - topic is roses Brian shifts topic to green fly Brian shifts topic to green fly Alison misses shift in focus = breakdown Alison misses shift in focus = breakdown

18. Focus and breakdown You can classify utterances by the task they perform in the conversation You can classify utterances by the task they perform in the conversation Substantive Substantive – directly relevant to the development of the conversation – directly relevant to the development of the conversation Annotative Annotative – points of clarification, elaboration etc – points of clarification, elaboration etc Procedural Procedural – talking about the process of collaboration itself – talking about the process of collaboration itself

19. Focus and breakdown Alison is giving Brian directions, using a whiteboard Alison is giving Brian directions, using a whiteboard Alison: you go along this road until you get to the river Alison: you go along this road until you get to the river Brian: do you stop before the river or after you cross it? Brian: do you stop before the river or after you cross it? Alison: before Alison: before Brian: draw the river in blue and the road in black Brian: draw the river in blue and the road in black Alison: So, you turn right beside the river Alison: So, you turn right beside the river Brian: past the pub Brian: past the pub Alison: yeah … is there another black pen? This one is running dry. Alison: yeah … is there another black pen? This one is running dry. substantive annotative procedural substantive procedural annotative NB: The final utterance is “procedural technical” and indicates that the system has become apparent to the participants

20. Breakdown Breakdown happens at all levels: Breakdown happens at all levels: topic, indexicals, gesture topic, indexicals, gesture Breakdowns are frequent, but: Breakdowns are frequent, but: redundancy makes detection easy (Brian cannot interpret “ they're the symbol of the English summer ”) redundancy makes detection easy (Brian cannot interpret “ they're the symbol of the English summer ”) people very good at repair (Brain and Alison quickly restore shared focus) people very good at repair (Brain and Alison quickly restore shared focus) Electronic media may lose some redundancy = breakdown more severe Electronic media may lose some redundancy = breakdown more severe

21. breakdown Alison: Isn’t that beautiful Alison: Isn’t that beautiful Points to a large male deer (stag) standing next to a tree Points to a large male deer (stag) standing next to a tree Brian: the symmetry of the branches Brian: the symmetry of the branches He thinks she pointed to the tree He thinks she pointed to the tree Alison: how some people can dislike them I cannot understand! Alison: how some people can dislike them I cannot understand! Brian: Yes – the park rangers should shoot all those damn deer before they kill the trees off for good! Brian: Yes – the park rangers should shoot all those damn deer before they kill the trees off for good! Alison: (silence) Alison: (silence) NOTE: Brians reference to symmetrical branches MAY have sounded to Alison like a reference to the stag’s antlers! NOTE: Brians reference to symmetrical branches MAY have sounded to Alison like a reference to the stag’s antlers!

22. Speech-Act Theory A specific form of conversational analysis A specific form of conversational analysis Utterances characterised by what they do, they’re acts Utterances characterised by what they do, they’re acts e.g., “I'm hungry” e.g., “I'm hungry” propositional meaning – hunger propositional meaning – hunger intended effect – “get me some food” intended effect – “get me some food” Classic example: “I now pronounce you man & wife” Classic example: “I now pronounce you man & wife”

23. Speech-Act Theory Basic conversational acts (illocutionary points): Basic conversational acts (illocutionary points): Promises Promises Requests Requests Declarations Declarations Assertions Assertions Counters Counters Reneges Reneges Withdrawals Withdrawals

24. Speech-Act Theory Speech acts need not be spoken Speech acts need not be spoken e.g., silence often interpreted as acceptance e.g., silence often interpreted as acceptance

25. Speech-Act Theory Generic patterns of acts can be identified: Generic patterns of acts can be identified: Conversation for action (CfA) Conversation for action (CfA) Seeks to obtain a specific request Seeks to obtain a specific request Conversation for clarification (CfC) Conversation for clarification (CfC) Usually embedded in CfA - to clarify the requested action Usually embedded in CfA - to clarify the requested action Conversation for possibilities (CfP) Conversation for possibilities (CfP) Looking towards future actions Looking towards future actions Conversation for Orientation (CfO) Conversation for Orientation (CfO) Building a shared understanding Building a shared understanding

26. Conversations for action Circles represent ‘states’ in the conversation Circles represent ‘states’ in the conversation Arcs represent utterances (speech acts) Arcs represent utterances (speech acts) Simplest route 1-2-3-4-5: Simplest route 1-2-3-4-5: Alison: have you got the market survey on chocolate? [request] Alison: have you got the market survey on chocolate? [request] Brian: sure [promise] Brian: sure [promise] Brian: there you are [assert] Brian: there you are [assert] Alison: thanks [declare] Alison: thanks [declare] More complex routes possible, e.g., 1-2-6-3 More complex routes possible, e.g., 1-2-6-3 Alison: have you got – [request] Alison: have you got – [request] Brian: I've only got the summary figures [counter] Brian: I've only got the summary figures [counter] Alison: that'll do [accept] Alison: that'll do [accept]

27. Text based communication Most common media for asynchronous groupware Most common media for asynchronous groupware exceptions: voice mail, answer phone exceptions: voice mail, answer phone Familiar medium, similar to paper letters Familiar medium, similar to paper letters but, electronic text may act as speech substitute! but, electronic text may act as speech substitute!

28. Text based communication Types of electronic text: Types of electronic text: Discrete: directed messages, no structure Discrete: directed messages, no structure Linear: messages added (in temporal order) Linear: messages added (in temporal order) Non-Linear: hypertext linkages Non-Linear: hypertext linkages Spatial: two dimensional arrangement Spatial: two dimensional arrangement

29. Text based communication Most obvious loss, no facial expression or body language Most obvious loss, no facial expression or body language weak back-channels, so it is difficult to convey: weak back-channels, so it is difficult to convey: affective state - happy, sad, angry humorous affective state - happy, sad, angry humorous illocutionary force - urgent, important, deferential illocutionary force - urgent, important, deferential Participants compensate by flaming and smilies ;-) Participants compensate by flaming and smilies ;-)

30. Grounding constraints Establishing common ground depends on grounding constraints Establishing common ground depends on grounding constraints Co-Temporality: - instant feedthrough Co-Temporality: - instant feedthrough Simultaneity: - speaking together Simultaneity: - speaking together Sequence: - utterances ordered Sequence: - utterances ordered

31. Grounding constraints These constraints are often weaker in text based communication than in face-to-face conversation These constraints are often weaker in text based communication than in face-to-face conversation e.g., loss of sequence in linear text: network delays or coarse granularity = overlap e.g., loss of sequence in linear text: network delays or coarse granularity = overlap

32. Grounding constraints 1. Bethan: how many should be in the group? 2. Rowena: maybe this could be one of the 4 strongest reasons 3. Rowena: please clarify what you mean 4. Bethan: I agree 5. Rowena: hang on 6. Rowena: Bethan what did you mean? Message pairs 1&2 and 3&4 composed simultaneously Message pairs 1&2 and 3&4 composed simultaneously i.e., lack of common experience i.e., lack of common experience Rowena: 2 1 3 4 5 6 Rowena: 2 1 3 4 5 6 Bethan: 1 2 4 3 5 6 Bethan: 1 2 4 3 5 6 Above shows breakdown of turn-taking result of poor back channels Above shows breakdown of turn-taking result of poor back channels

33. Maintaining context Recall context was essential for disambiguation Recall context was essential for disambiguation Text loses external context, hence deixis (cf: deictic) linking to shared objects can help Text loses external context, hence deixis (cf: deictic) linking to shared objects can help 1. Alison: Brian's got some lovely roses 1. Alison: Brian's got some lovely roses 2. Brian: I'm afraid they're covered in green fly 2. Brian: I'm afraid they're covered in green fly 3. Clarise: I've seen them, they're beautiful 3. Clarise: I've seen them, they're beautiful Both (2) and (3) are responses to (1) Both (2) and (3) are responses to (1) but the transcript suggests green fly are beautiful but the transcript suggests green fly are beautiful Hypertext can maintain ‘parallel’ conversations Hypertext can maintain ‘parallel’ conversations

34. Pace and Granularity Pace of conversation - the rate of turn taking Pace of conversation - the rate of turn taking face-to-face - every few seconds face-to-face - every few seconds telephone - half a minute telephone - half a minute email - hours or days email - hours or days face-to-face conversation is highly interactive face-to-face conversation is highly interactive If initial utterance is vague feedback gives cues for comprehension If initial utterance is vague feedback gives cues for comprehension lower pace = less feedback = less interactive lower pace = less feedback = less interactive

35. Pace and Granularity Coping strategies attempt to increase granularity: Coping strategies attempt to increase granularity: eagerness - looking ahead in the conversation game eagerness - looking ahead in the conversation game Brian: Like a cup of tea? Milk or lemon? Brian: Like a cup of tea? Milk or lemon? multiplexing - several topics in one utterance multiplexing - several topics in one utterance Alison: No thanks. I love your roses. Alison: No thanks. I love your roses.

36. The Conversation Game Conversation is like a game Conversation is like a game Linear text follows one path through it Linear text follows one path through it Participants choose the path by their utterances Participants choose the path by their utterances Hypertext can follow several paths at once Hypertext can follow several paths at once

37. Group dynamics Workgroups constantly change: Workgroups constantly change: in structure in structure in size in size Several groupware systems have explicit roles Several groupware systems have explicit roles But roles depend on context and time But roles depend on context and time e.g., M.D. down a mine is under the authority of the foreman e.g., M.D. down a mine is under the authority of the foreman e.g., a General can be under a Private during an Int. Briefing e.g., a General can be under a Private during an Int. Briefing and may not reflect duties and may not reflect duties e.g., subject of biography, author, but now writer e.g., subject of biography, author, but now writer

38. Group dynamics Social structure may change: democratic, autocratic, and group may fragment into sub-groups Social structure may change: democratic, autocratic, and group may fragment into sub-groups Groupware systems rarely achieve this flexibility Groupware systems rarely achieve this flexibility Groups also change in composition Groups also change in composition new members must be able to ‘catch up’ new members must be able to ‘catch up’

39. Physical environment Face-to-face working radically affected by layout of workplace Face-to-face working radically affected by layout of workplace e.g., meeting rooms: e.g., meeting rooms: recessed terminals reduce visual impact recessed terminals reduce visual impact inward facing to encourage eye contact inward facing to encourage eye contact different social-power positions different social-power positions Traditional cognitive psychology is all in the head Traditional cognitive psychology is all in the head

40. Physical environment Distributed cognition suggests we look to the world Distributed cognition suggests we look to the world Thinking takes place in interaction with other people and the physical environment Thinking takes place in interaction with other people and the physical environment Implications for group work: Implications for group work: importance of mediating representations importance of mediating representations group knowledge greater than sum of parts group knowledge greater than sum of parts design focus on external representation design focus on external representation

41. What is CSCW? Any work that is being done between two or more individual where the collaborative nature of the work is supported by computer technology Any work that is being done between two or more individual where the collaborative nature of the work is supported by computer technology “…a generic term which combines the understanding of the way people work in groups with the enabling technologies of computer networking, and associated hardware, software, services and techniques.” (Wilson, 1991)

42. A Lesson in CSCW History Paul Cashman and Irene Grief (1980s) Paul Cashman and Irene Grief (1980s) Workshop focusing on development of computer systems to support people in their work activities Workshop focusing on development of computer systems to support people in their work activities A gathering of people from various disciplines A gathering of people from various disciplines Shared an interest in how people work Shared an interest in how people work Understand how technology could support people’s work Understand how technology could support people’s work

43. A Lesson in CSCW History The term "computer-supported cooperative work“ coined to describe this shared interest The term "computer-supported cooperative work“ coined to describe this shared interest First open CSCW conference in 1986 in Austin, Texas with 300 people attending First open CSCW conference in 1986 in Austin, Texas with 300 people attending Began as an effort by technologists to learn from economists, social psychologists, anthropologists, organizational theorists, educators, and anyone else who could shed light on group activity Began as an effort by technologists to learn from economists, social psychologists, anthropologists, organizational theorists, educators, and anyone else who could shed light on group activity

44. Why CSCW? Build tools that support better communication Build tools that support better communication E-mail, computer conferencing, voice messaging, Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) E-mail, computer conferencing, voice messaging, Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) Build tools that support better sharing of work tasks, activities and processes Build tools that support better sharing of work tasks, activities and processes Remote file sharing, shared drawing and editing tools, shared whiteboards Remote file sharing, shared drawing and editing tools, shared whiteboards Determine how to effectively build interfaces that support group communication and sharing Determine how to effectively build interfaces that support group communication and sharing Study existing workgroup collaboration in order to determine how to best support it with technology Study existing workgroup collaboration in order to determine how to best support it with technology

45. CSCW Basics Multidisciplinary Multidisciplinary Software design, organisational behaviour, psychology, communication theory, anthropology, etc. Software design, organisational behaviour, psychology, communication theory, anthropology, etc. Key issues Key issues Group awareness Group awareness Multi-user interfaces Multi-user interfaces Concurrency control Concurrency control Group communication and coordination Group communication and coordination Shared information space Shared information space Focus is on how groups work and how technology can help them work better Focus is on how groups work and how technology can help them work better Field of study that deals with the design, adoption and use of groupware and issues surrounding the use of groupware Field of study that deals with the design, adoption and use of groupware and issues surrounding the use of groupware

46. Groupware Groupware is a term for applications written to support the collaboration of several users. Groupware is a term for applications written to support the collaboration of several users. Groupware can support different activities: Groupware can support different activities: direct interpersonal communication direct interpersonal communication ideas generation and decision making ideas generation and decision making sharing computer objects. sharing computer objects. It can be classified in several ways: It can be classified in several ways: by where and when it happens by where and when it happens by the sort of information shared by the sort of information shared by the aspects of cooperations supported by the aspects of cooperations supported Implementing groupware is more difficult than single-user applications: Implementing groupware is more difficult than single-user applications: because of network delays because of network delays because there are so many components to go wrong because there are so many components to go wrong because graphical toolkits assume a single user because graphical toolkits assume a single user

47. Why Groupware? Rethinking business processes and functions because Rethinking business processes and functions because People no longer need to work in the same place - expertise People no longer need to work in the same place - expertise The cost of employee communication is significantly lowered The cost of employee communication is significantly lowered Getting the status of work in progress is easier Getting the status of work in progress is easier

48. Types of Groupware Electronic Mail Electronic Mail Supports the asynchronous communication of individuals Supports the asynchronous communication of individuals Media Spaces Media Spaces Videoconferencing with computer added features Videoconferencing with computer added features Video switching to set up subgroups of meeting participants and add cooperative features to the video exchange Video switching to set up subgroups of meeting participants and add cooperative features to the video exchange Electronic Meetings Electronic Meetings Electronic meeting rooms Electronic meeting rooms Desktop video conferencing Desktop video conferencing Electronic Whiteboards Electronic Whiteboards Newsgroups Newsgroups Chat Systems Chat Systems Electronic Calendar Management Systems Shared Calendar Systems Helps group members plan meetings and share availability information Shared calendar systems tell employees how busy someone is, who they are working with, what projects they are working on Worksharing Systems Work Monitoring Systems Decision Support Systems Workflow Systems Multi-player Games

49. NetMeetin g E-mail

50. CS Meeting Rooms

51. Video Conferencing

52. Shared Calendars

54. Think about shared calendars… Advantages? Advantages? Disadvantages? Disadvantages?

55. Videophones… One of the earliest technological innovations One of the earliest technological innovations Numerous attempts by companies to introduce videophones Numerous attempts by companies to introduce videophones But failed each time… But failed each time… Why?? Why??

56. Time/Location Matrix Classify groupware by: Classify groupware by: when the participants are working, at the same time or not when the participants are working, at the same time or not where the participants are working, at the same place or not where the participants are working, at the same place or not Common names for axes: time: synchronous/asynchronous place: co-located/remote Common names for axes: time: synchronous/asynchronous place: co-located/remote different place same place same time different time

57. Time/Location Matrix different place same place same time different time face-to-face conversation telephone post-it noteletter

58. Designing Groupware Involves understanding groups and how people behave in groups Requires special consideration Differences between and within groups Homogeneity of users Types of cooperation and collaboration Key decision makers Stage of group development Dynamic nature of groups Adoption by group

59. Groupware Usability Testing Usability testing is often significantly more difficult with groupware than with single-user systems. Usability testing is often significantly more difficult with groupware than with single-user systems. Windows 3000

60. General Issues in CSCW and Groupware Adoption and acceptance Adoption and acceptance Critical mass of users Critical mass of users Avoiding abuse Avoiding abuse Violations of social protocol Violations of social protocol Privacy Privacy Desire to share information Desire to share information Identification and accountability Identification and accountability Redistribution of power Redistribution of power E.g. meetings E.g. meetings HCI design issues????

61. CSCW Success & Failure Many of today’s CSCW systems have been failures Many of today’s CSCW systems have been failures Why do you think this is so? Why do you think this is so? What do you think the major causes of these failures are? What do you think the major causes of these failures are? What do you think can be done to overcome these failures? What do you think can be done to overcome these failures? Examples of successful systems? Examples of successful systems?