1. Week 2. Clauses and Trees and c-command, oh my. CAS LX 522 Syntax I

2. Previously, in LX 522… Sentences have structure, and are made up of constituents. Sentences have structure, and are made up of constituents. The constituents are phrases. The constituents are phrases. A phrase consists of a head and modifiers. A phrase consists of a head and modifiers. The categorial type of the head determines the categorial type of the phrase (e.g., a phrase headed by a noun is a noun phrase). The categorial type of the head determines the categorial type of the phrase (e.g., a phrase headed by a noun is a noun phrase). There are several categories, we looked at some of them and determined phrase structure rules or templates for what each kind of phrase can contain. There are several categories, we looked at some of them and determined phrase structure rules or templates for what each kind of phrase can contain.

3. Previously, in LX 522… We looked at NP, VP, PP, AdvP, and AdjP. We looked at NP, VP, PP, AdvP, and AdjP. NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP) PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) AdjP: (AdvP) Adj AdjP: (AdvP) Adj AdvP: (AdvP) Adv AdvP: (AdvP) Adv

4. Trees and constituency A sentence has a hierarchical structure A sentence has a hierarchical structure Constituents can have constituents of their own. Constituents can have constituents of their own. The simplest way to draw this is with a tree. The simplest way to draw this is with a tree. on the N PP NPP D table

5. Trees The tree diagram is the most important analytical notation we will work with, and we will use a lot of trees through the semester, so it is important to be able to understand and draw trees. The tree diagram is the most important analytical notation we will work with, and we will use a lot of trees through the semester, so it is important to be able to understand and draw trees.

6. Drawing trees Suppose the task is to draw the tree structure of a simple sentence. Suppose the task is to draw the tree structure of a simple sentence. The student put the book on the table. The student put the book on the table.

7. Step 1: Identify categories The first step is to identify the category of each of the words in the sentence. The student put the book on the table

8. Step 1: Identify categories The first step is to identify the category of each of the words in the sentence. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP

9. Step 2: Locate modification The second step is to figure out the modification relations between words. What modifies what? Here, we have several thes and each modifies the noun to its right. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP

10. Step 3: Apply rules The third step is to apply our rules, remembering the Golden Rule of Modifiers: Modifiers are always attached within the phrase they modify. So we look at the things being modified, and consult the rule for things of that category. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP

11. Step 3: Apply rules We have several N’s being modified. So we consult our rule about NPs: NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) Starting at the right edge, we see that the table can form an NP. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP

12. Step 3: Apply rules So, we draw an NP above the table. Now, consider on. It is a P, and there is only one kind of phrase which can contain a P: PP: P NP PP: P NP Can we build a PP with what we have? The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP

13. Step 3: Apply rules Sure, we can draw in a PP for on the table. Next, look at book. It is an N and the only rule we have that contains an N is NP: NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) Can we build an NP? The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP

14. Step 3: Apply rules Here, we have two choices. NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) An NP may but need not contain a PP. We have D N PP at our disposal. We could put them all in an NP, or we could leave the PP out of the NP. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP

15. Step 3: Apply rules Only one choice is the right choice. How do we know which one it is? Answer: The Golden Rule of Modifiers. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP ?

16. Step 3: Apply rules In The student put the book on the table, does on the table modify book? If so, it needs to be in the NP headed by book. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP ?

17. Step 3: Apply rules Compare this sentence to The student saw the book on the table What is the difference them with respect to on the table? The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP ?

18. Step 3: Apply rules On the table in our sentence modifies put (it specifies the goal location of the putting); it does not modify book, and so it should not be included in the same NP as book (it should be in the same phrase as put). The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP

19. Step 3: Apply rules Only one of our phrase structure rules has a V, the VP rule, so we can build a VP. VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) We just determined that on the table modifies the verb, so the VP must contain the NP and the PP following the V. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP

20. Step 3: Apply rules The last step we can do with the rules we have so far is to build the NP over the student. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP VP

21. Step 3: Apply rules Using the idea that the sentence has an NP and a VP (which we will soon add to our rules), we can complete the tree. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP VP NP

22. Step 3: Apply rules And that’s our tree for The student put the book on the table. The student put the book on the table DNVDDNNP NP PP NP VP NP S

23. The S node At the end of our tree, we had to posit a rule which we hadn’t yet formalized: At the end of our tree, we had to posit a rule which we hadn’t yet formalized: S: NP VP S: NP VP This is a good first approximation, but there are a couple of problems with this formulation This is a good first approximation, but there are a couple of problems with this formulation

24. The S node The first problem is that it is not complete as it stands. Consider: The first problem is that it is not complete as it stands. Consider: The students will eat the sandwiches. The students will eat the sandwiches. We have an NP the students, which is the subject of the sentence. We have an NP the students, which is the subject of the sentence. We have an NP the sandwiches and a VP eat the sandwiches. We have an NP the sandwiches and a VP eat the sandwiches. But what is will? But what is will?

25. The S node There are a number of things which can go in this position. One group of these are called modals: There are a number of things which can go in this position. One group of these are called modals: Pat could leave. Pat could leave. Pat should leave. Pat should leave. Pat might leave. Pat might leave. Pat will leave. Pat will leave. Pat would leave. Pat would leave. Modals appear between the subject NP (Pat) and the VP (leave). So, we need to allow for this in our S rule. Modals appear between the subject NP (Pat) and the VP (leave). So, we need to allow for this in our S rule.

26. The S node S: NP (Modal) VP S: NP (Modal) VP We also need to allow for the not in negative sentences like: We also need to allow for the not in negative sentences like: Pat might not leave. Pat might not leave. Pat should not leave. Pat should not leave. So, we now have So, we now have S: NP (Modal) (Neg) VP S: NP (Modal) (Neg) VP

27. Do-support Pat left. Pat left. Pat did not leave. Pat did not leave. *Pat not left. *Pat not left. When you negate a sentence like this in English, you need to use do. When you negate a sentence like this in English, you need to use do. Do looks like it is in the same place that modals are. Do looks like it is in the same place that modals are. When you use do like this, do gets marked for tense, not the verb. When you use do like this, do gets marked for tense, not the verb.

28. Do-support In fact, when you have something in the “Modal” slot, the verb never shows past tense marking. In fact, when you have something in the “Modal” slot, the verb never shows past tense marking. Pat left. Pat left. Pat will (not) leave. Pat will (not) leave. Pat did not leave. Pat did not leave. Pat should not leave. Pat should not leave. Hypothesis: The “modal” slot is where the tense marking (past, present, future) goes. Hypothesis: The “modal” slot is where the tense marking (past, present, future) goes.

29. Do-support For this reason, we will call the “modal” slot “T” (for “tense”). For this reason, we will call the “modal” slot “T” (for “tense”). S: NP (T) (Neg) VP S: NP (T) (Neg) VP Terminology note: This position has gone by several names in linguistic history. Terminology note: This position has gone by several names in linguistic history. 60’s: Aux (auxiliary, for have and be) 60’s: Aux (auxiliary, for have and be) 80’s: Infl or I (inflection, including tense) 80’s: Infl or I (inflection, including tense) 90’s: Tns or T (sort of, to be clarified later) 90’s: Tns or T (sort of, to be clarified later)

30. Do-support Now, consider Pat left. The verb is marked with past tense, but we wanted to make T be where the tense information goes. Now, consider Pat left. The verb is marked with past tense, but we wanted to make T be where the tense information goes. The common view is that T holds something that is smaller than a word, a tense affix. The common view is that T holds something that is smaller than a word, a tense affix.

31. The tense affix If you look at verbs, many of them can be distinguished in the present and the past tense by the presence of -ed at the end. If you look at verbs, many of them can be distinguished in the present and the past tense by the presence of -ed at the end. Walk vs. walked (walk+ed) Walk vs. walked (walk+ed) Wait vs. waited (wait+ed) Wait vs. waited (wait+ed) Sleep vs. slept (sleep+ed) Sleep vs. slept (sleep+ed) The idea is that the past tense of the verb is made of the verb stem plus something else, the past tense suffix. The idea is that the past tense of the verb is made of the verb stem plus something else, the past tense suffix.

32. The tense affix If we suppose that the past tense affix -ed is of category T, we could write Pat left this way: If we suppose that the past tense affix -ed is of category T, we could write Pat left this way: Pat -ed leave Pat -ed leave Part of being a verbal affix (in this case a verbal suffix) is that it is required to be attached to a verb. Part of being a verbal affix (in this case a verbal suffix) is that it is required to be attached to a verb. So -ed must “hop” onto leave (because verbal affixes need to be attached to verbs), yielding left. So -ed must “hop” onto leave (because verbal affixes need to be attached to verbs), yielding left.

33. The tense affix Now, since every sentence needs tense, we can suppose that the T in our S rule isn’t optional—there is always a T there, but it can be an affix which will hop onto the verb and be pronounced as one word with the verb. Now, since every sentence needs tense, we can suppose that the T in our S rule isn’t optional—there is always a T there, but it can be an affix which will hop onto the verb and be pronounced as one word with the verb. S: NP T (Neg) VP S: NP T (Neg) VP

34. Do-support This also gives us an explanation for why when you negate a sentence you need to use do: This also gives us an explanation for why when you negate a sentence you need to use do: Pat did not leave. Pat did not leave. The past tense affix needs to be attached to a verb, but it can’t because not is in the way. The past tense affix needs to be attached to a verb, but it can’t because not is in the way. The way out is to insert a “dummy verb”, a verb that has no semantic content, that -ed can attach to. The way out is to insert a “dummy verb”, a verb that has no semantic content, that -ed can attach to.

35. Do-support The idea is that we insert the “dummy verb” do as a “last resort” if the sentence has a “stranded affix” that can’t hop onto an adjacent verb. This is called do- support. The idea is that we insert the “dummy verb” do as a “last resort” if the sentence has a “stranded affix” that can’t hop onto an adjacent verb. This is called do- support.

36. The S node So given “affix hopping” and do-support, we can write our S rule with three required elements: So given “affix hopping” and do-support, we can write our S rule with three required elements: S: NP T (Neg) VP S: NP T (Neg) VP There is something else which is unusual about the S rule in comparison to our other rules. There is something else which is unusual about the S rule in comparison to our other rules.

37. The S node Compare S: NP T (Neg) VP to Compare S: NP T (Neg) VP to NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP) PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) Our other rules make phrases that are the same category as their head. Our other rules make phrases that are the same category as their head. What is the head of S? What is the head of S?

38. The TP node An obvious choice, now that T is a required part of S, is to assume that T is the head of S. An obvious choice, now that T is a required part of S, is to assume that T is the head of S. Given this, we will rename our S node to “TP” to be more in line with our other phrases. Given this, we will rename our S node to “TP” to be more in line with our other phrases. TP: NP T (Neg) VP TP: NP T (Neg) VP That is, the tense morpheme -ed or a modal like might is actually the head of the sentence. That is, the tense morpheme -ed or a modal like might is actually the head of the sentence. Terminology reminder: In 80’s terminology this is called “IP” and is often referred to that way even today—it’s the same thing. Terminology reminder: In 80’s terminology this is called “IP” and is often referred to that way even today—it’s the same thing.

39. Embedded clauses There is just one more kind of phrase we should add to our set of structure rules. There is just one more kind of phrase we should add to our set of structure rules. It is possible to embed one sentence inside another, like this: It is possible to embed one sentence inside another, like this: Pat said that the students ate the sandwiches. Pat said that the students ate the sandwiches. The whole thing is a sentence, but it has our familiar sentences as part of it. The whole thing is a sentence, but it has our familiar sentences as part of it.

40. Embedded clauses Pat said that the students ate the sandwiches. Pat said that the students ate the sandwiches. We know that the students ate the sandwiches is a TP, so let’s abbreviate this: We know that the students ate the sandwiches is a TP, so let’s abbreviate this: Pat said that TP. Pat said that TP. When you embed a sentence, you generally need a word like that, called a complementizer. We will assign it to category C. When you embed a sentence, you generally need a word like that, called a complementizer. We will assign it to category C.

41. The CP Pat said that TP. Pat said that TP. We can write a rule for CP like this, where that (C) is the head, and TP is an obligatory “modifier.” We can write a rule for CP like this, where that (C) is the head, and TP is an obligatory “modifier.” CP: C TP CP: C TP And we need to modify our VP rule to allow CP to be the object of a verb (like say): And we need to modify our VP rule to allow CP to be the object of a verb (like say): VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) Rarely, you’ll see CP referred to as S’ (“S-bar”); that is 70s terminology. If you see S’, think CP. Rarely, you’ll see CP referred to as S’ (“S-bar”); that is 70s terminology. If you see S’, think CP.

42. The CP In fact, a CP can not only be the object of a verb, but it can also be the subject of a verb: In fact, a CP can not only be the object of a verb, but it can also be the subject of a verb: That Pat left surprised me. That Pat left surprised me. The dog surprised me. The dog surprised me. So, we need to allow for this in our TP rule: So, we need to allow for this in our TP rule: TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP

43. Our phrase structure rules We now have a fairly complete set of rules. We now have a fairly complete set of rules. NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP) PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) AdjP: (AdvP) Adj AdjP: (AdvP) Adj AdvP: (AdvP) Adv AdvP: (AdvP) Adv TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP CP: C TP CP: C TP

44. Recursion An important property of the rules we have is that they are recursive. Inside a CP, you can have a CP. Inside an AdvP you can have an AdvP. This means that there in principle an infinite number of possible sentence structures. An important property of the rules we have is that they are recursive. Inside a CP, you can have a CP. Inside an AdvP you can have an AdvP. This means that there in principle an infinite number of possible sentence structures. John left. John left. Mary said that John left. Mary said that John left. Bill thinks that Mary said that John left. Bill thinks that Mary said that John left. I heard that Bill thinks that Mary said that John left. I heard that Bill thinks that Mary said that John left. Pat said that I heard that Bill thinks that Mary said that John left. Pat said that I heard that Bill thinks that Mary said that John left.

45. Back to the trees We now have the tools to draw trees for a lot of English sentences. Let’s do another one—it will be very important to be comfortable with converting sentences into trees. We now have the tools to draw trees for a lot of English sentences. Let’s do another one—it will be very important to be comfortable with converting sentences into trees. Our sentence will be: Our sentence will be: John said that the dog barked very loudly. John said that the dog barked very loudly.

46. Step 1:Identify categories First, identify the categories. First, identify the categories. John said that the dog barked very loudly.

47. Step 2: Locate modification First, identify the categories. First, identify the categories. Then, figure out what modifies what. Then, figure out what modifies what. John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N

48. Step 2: Locate modification The modifies dog. The modifies dog. Very modifies loudly. Very modifies loudly. Very loudly modifies barked. Very loudly modifies barked. Now, we start to apply our rules. Now, we start to apply our rules. John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N

49. Step 3: Apply rules Very modifies loudly, so very must be inside the phrase headed by loudly, an AdvP. Our rule is: Very modifies loudly, so very must be inside the phrase headed by loudly, an AdvP. Our rule is: AdvP: (AdvP) Adv. AdvP: (AdvP) Adv. Notice: The AdvP headed by loudly can optionally take an AdvP—not an Adv. So, first we need to make very an AdvP. Notice: The AdvP headed by loudly can optionally take an AdvP—not an Adv. So, first we need to make very an AdvP. John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N

50. Step 3: Apply rules Now, we can apply our rule to make the AdvP very loudly. Now, we can apply our rule to make the AdvP very loudly. AdvP: (AdvP) Adv. AdvP: (AdvP) Adv. John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP

51. Step 3: Apply rules Next, we have the V. Our rule is Next, we have the V. Our rule is VP: (AdvP+) V (NP/CP) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP/CP) (PP+) (AdvP+) So we can build a VP containing the verb and the AdvP very loudly. So we can build a VP containing the verb and the AdvP very loudly. John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP

52. Step 3: Apply rules Moving on to dog, it is modified by the, together constituting the subject NP of the embedded sentence. Our rule allows us to build an NP here. Moving on to dog, it is modified by the, together constituting the subject NP of the embedded sentence. Our rule allows us to build an NP here. NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP

53. Step 3: Apply rules Now we want to complete the embedded sentence. Our rule is: Now we want to complete the embedded sentence. Our rule is: TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. We can’t build that with what we have right now. We can’t build that with what we have right now. John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP

54. Step 3: Apply rules Remember that barked, the past tense of bark, comes from a past tense morpheme (- ed) and the verb stem (bark). Remember that barked, the past tense of bark, comes from a past tense morpheme (- ed) and the verb stem (bark). So, the word barked is really structurally -ed barked. We need to add this to the tree. So, the word barked is really structurally -ed barked. We need to add this to the tree. Same for said (say + -ed) Same for said (say + -ed) John said that the dog barked very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP

55. Step 3: Apply rules Now, we can apply our TP rule to do the embedded clause. Now, we can apply our TP rule to do the embedded clause. TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. John -ed say that the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT

56. Step 3: Apply rules And then we can use the CP to build the phrase headed by that. And then we can use the CP to build the phrase headed by that. CP: C TP CP: C TP John -ed say that the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT TP

57. Step 3: Apply rules Next, the VP rule to combine say and the CP. Next, the VP rule to combine say and the CP. VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) John -ed say that the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT TP CP

58. Step 3: Apply rules And then the TP rule: TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. And then the TP rule: TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. This needs an NP, so we need to build that first. This needs an NP, so we need to build that first. John -ed say that the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT TP CP VP

59. Step 3: Apply rules Now we can use the TP rule: Now we can use the TP rule: TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP. John -ed say that the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT TP CP VP NP

60. Step 3: Apply rules And we’re done. And we’re done. John -ed say that the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT TP CP VP NP TP

61. That vs. Ø What if the sentence were What if the sentence were John said the dog barked very loudly? John said the dog barked very loudly? John -ed say Ø the dog -ed bark very loudly. NVCDAdvV N AdvP VP NP TT TP CP VP NP TP

62. One to try… NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP) PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) VP: (AdvP+) V ({NP/CP}) (PP+) (AdvP+) AdjP: (AdvP) Adj AdjP: (AdvP) Adj AdvP: (AdvP) Adv AdvP: (AdvP) Adv TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP TP: {NP/CP} T (Neg) VP CP: C TP CP: C TP The young consumers walked to the new store. The young consumers walked to the new store.

63. The young consumers… Is this what you ended up with? Is this what you ended up with? The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

64. Trees We will be working with trees a lot, and the geometry of trees will be quite important. We need some terminology to talk about the parts of trees. We will be working with trees a lot, and the geometry of trees will be quite important. We need some terminology to talk about the parts of trees.

65. Trees An abstract tree structure… A BC D EF

66. Trees The “joints” of the tree are nodes. The nodes here are labeled (with node labels). The “joints” of the tree are nodes. The nodes here are labeled (with node labels). A BC D EF

67. Trees Nodes are connected by branches. Nodes are connected by branches. A BC D EF

68. Trees The “joints” of the tree are nodes. The nodes here are labeled (with node labels). The “joints” of the tree are nodes. The nodes here are labeled (with node labels). Nodes are connected by branches. Nodes are connected by branches. The node at the top of the tree (with no branches above it) is called the root node. A is the root node. The node at the top of the tree (with no branches above it) is called the root node. A is the root node. A BC D EF

69. Trees Nodes with no branches beneath them are called terminal nodes. Nodes with no branches beneath them are called terminal nodes. B, D, E, F are terminal nodes. B, D, E, F are terminal nodes. A BC D EF

70. Trees Nodes with no branches beneath them are called terminal nodes. Nodes with no branches beneath them are called terminal nodes. B, D, E, F are terminal nodes. B, D, E, F are terminal nodes. Nodes with branches beneath them are called nonterminal nodes. Nodes with branches beneath them are called nonterminal nodes. A, C are nonterminal nodes. A, C are nonterminal nodes. A BC D EF

71. Tree relations A node X dominates nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off of the page. A node X dominates nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off of the page. A BC D EF

72. Tree relations A node X dominates nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off of the page. A node X dominates nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off of the page. C dominates D, E, and F. C dominates D, E, and F. A BC D EF C D EF

73. Tree relations A node X immediately dominates a node Y if X dominates Y and is connected by only one branch. A node X immediately dominates a node Y if X dominates Y and is connected by only one branch. A immediately dominates B and C. A immediately dominates B and C. A BC D EF

74. Tree relations A node X immediately dominates a node Y if X dominates Y and is connected by only one branch. A node X immediately dominates a node Y if X dominates Y and is connected by only one branch. A immediately dominates B and C. A immediately dominates B and C. A is also sometimes called the mother of B and C. A is also sometimes called the mother of B and C. A BC D EF

75. Tree relations A node which shares the same mother as a node X is sometimes called the sister of X. A node which shares the same mother as a node X is sometimes called the sister of X. B is the sister of C. B is the sister of C. C is the sister of B. C is the sister of B. D, E are the sisters of F. D, E are the sisters of F. A BC D EF

76. Tree relations A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A BC D EF

77. Tree relations A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. A BC D EF

78. Tree relations A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. D c-commands E and F. D c-commands E and F. A BC D EF

79. Tree relations A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. D c-commands E and F. D c-commands E and F. C c-commands B. C c-commands B. A BC D EF

80. Tree relations A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. B c-commands C, D, E, and F. D c-commands E and F. D c-commands E and F. C c-commands B. C c-commands B. A BC D EF C-command is very important to understand!

81. Tree relations What does PP dominate? What does PP dominate? The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

82. Tree relations What does PP dominate? What does PP dominate? P, NP, D, AdjP, Adj, N. P, NP, D, AdjP, Adj, N. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

83. Tree relations What is/are the sister(s) of V? What is/are the sister(s) of V? The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

84. Tree relations What is/are the sister(s) of V? What is/are the sister(s) of V? PP. PP. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

85. Tree relations What is/are the sister(s) of the N store? What is/are the sister(s) of the N store? The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

86. Tree relations What is/are the sister(s) of the N store? What is/are the sister(s) of the N store? D, AdjP. D, AdjP. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

87. Tree relations What does P c-command? What does P c-command? The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

88. Tree relations What does P c-command? What does P c-command? NP, D, AdjP, Adj, N. NP, D, AdjP, Adj, N. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

89. Tree relations What does VP c-command? What does VP c-command? The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

90. Tree relations What does VP c-command? What does VP c-command? NP, D, AdjP, Adj, N, T. NP, D, AdjP, Adj, N, T. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

91. Grammatical relations What is the subject of this sentence? What is the subject of this sentence? The NP The young consumers. The NP The young consumers. Notice that this is the daughter of TP. Notice that this is the daughter of TP. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

92. Grammatical relations In fact, the subject is in general, the NP which is the daughter of TP. In fact, the subject is in general, the NP which is the daughter of TP. Subject = NP daughter of TP Subject = NP daughter of TP The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

93. Grammatical relations Similarly the (direct) object is generally the NP which is the daughter of VP Similarly the (direct) object is generally the NP which is the daughter of VP Direct object = NP daughter of VP. Direct object = NP daughter of VP. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

94. Grammatical relations And the object of a preposition is the NP which is the daughter of PP. And the object of a preposition is the NP which is the daughter of PP. Object of a preposition = NP daughter of PP. Object of a preposition = NP daughter of PP. The young consumers -ed walk to the new store DDVPNAdjNT NP PP VP TP Adj AdjP

95. Precedence The tree also encodes the linear order of the terminal nodes. The tree also encodes the linear order of the terminal nodes.

96. Precedence The is pronounced before students. The is pronounced before students. NP DN thestudents

97. Precedence The tree also encodes the linear order of the terminal nodes. The tree also encodes the linear order of the terminal nodes. The is pronounced before students. The is pronounced before students. Saw is pronounced before the and students. Saw is pronounced before the and students. NP DN thestudents V saw VP

98. Precedence That is, V is pronounced before NP, meaning V is pronounced before all of the terminal nodes dominated by NP. That is, V is pronounced before NP, meaning V is pronounced before all of the terminal nodes dominated by NP. NP DN thestudents V saw VP

99. Precedence Even if the tree is drawn sloppily, nothing changes—(everything dominated by) V is pronounced before (everything dominated by) NP. This is still “saw the students”. Even if the tree is drawn sloppily, nothing changes—(everything dominated by) V is pronounced before (everything dominated by) NP. This is still “saw the students”. NP DN thestudents V saw VP

100. No line crossing One of the implications of this is that you cannot draw a well- formed tree with lines that cross. One of the implications of this is that you cannot draw a well- formed tree with lines that cross. Adv can’t be pronounced before V because Adv is part of NP and V has to be pronounced before all of NP. Adv can’t be pronounced before V because Adv is part of NP and V has to be pronounced before all of NP. NAdjVAdv AdvP AdjP NP VP

101. Back to c-command To reiterate, c-command is a very important concept of tree geometry. It’s not fundamentally complicated, but it turns out to be very useful in characterizing natural language syntax. To reiterate, c-command is a very important concept of tree geometry. It’s not fundamentally complicated, but it turns out to be very useful in characterizing natural language syntax. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A node X c-commands its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters. A BC D EF

102. Back to c-command C-command can be symmetric or asymmetric. C-command can be symmetric or asymmetric. A node  asymmetrically c- commands a node  iff  c- commands  but  doesn’t c- command . A node  asymmetrically c- commands a node  iff  c- commands  but  doesn’t c- command . Two nodes  and  symmetrically c-command each other iff  c- commands  and  c-commands . Two nodes  and  symmetrically c-command each other iff  c- commands  and  c-commands . Examples? Examples? A BC D EF

103. Bracketed diagrams Another way of conveying the information in a tree is with a bracketed diagram. Another way of conveying the information in a tree is with a bracketed diagram. [ A B [ C D E F] ] [ A B [ C D E F] ] Constituents are marked by matching brackets, the left bracket (generally) is marked with the label of the constituent as a whole. Constituents are marked by matching brackets, the left bracket (generally) is marked with the label of the constituent as a whole. A BC D EF

104. Negative Polarity Items Certain words in English seem to only be available in “negative” contexts. Certain words in English seem to only be available in “negative” contexts. Pat didn’t invite anyone to the party. Pat didn’t invite anyone to the party. Pat does not know anything about syntax. Pat does not know anything about syntax. Pat hasn’t ever been to London. Pat hasn’t ever been to London. Pat hasn’t seen Forrest Gump yet. Pat hasn’t seen Forrest Gump yet. *Pat invited anyone to the party. *Pat invited anyone to the party. *Pat knows anything about syntax. *Pat knows anything about syntax. *Pat has ever been to London. *Pat has ever been to London. *Pat has seen Forrest Gump yet. *Pat has seen Forrest Gump yet.

105. Negative Polarity Items These are called negative polarity items. These are called negative polarity items. They include ever, yet, anyone, anything, any N, as well as some idiomatic ones like lift a finger and a red cent. They include ever, yet, anyone, anything, any N, as well as some idiomatic ones like lift a finger and a red cent. Pat didn’t lift a finger to help. Pat didn’t lift a finger to help. Pat didn’t have a red cent. Pat didn’t have a red cent. *Pat lifted a finger to help. *Pat lifted a finger to help. *Pat had a red cent. *Pat had a red cent.

106. Any Just to introduce a complication right away, there is a positive-polarity version of any that has a different meaning, known as the “free choice any” meaning. This meaning is distinguishable (intuitively) from the NPI any meaning, and we are concentrating only on the NPI any meaning—for now, we will just consider any to be ambiguous, like bank. Just to introduce a complication right away, there is a positive-polarity version of any that has a different meaning, known as the “free choice any” meaning. This meaning is distinguishable (intuitively) from the NPI any meaning, and we are concentrating only on the NPI any meaning—for now, we will just consider any to be ambiguous, like bank. John read anything the professor gave him. John read anything the professor gave him. Anyone who can understand syntax is a genius. Anyone who can understand syntax is a genius. Pick any card. Pick any card.

107. Licensing NPI’s are only allowed to appear if there’s a negative in the sentence. NPI’s are only allowed to appear if there’s a negative in the sentence. We say that negation gives them “license to appear”: NPI’s are licensed by negation in a sentence. We say that negation gives them “license to appear”: NPI’s are licensed by negation in a sentence. Just like you need a driver’s license to drive a car (legally), you need negation to use a NPI (grammatically). Just like you need a driver’s license to drive a car (legally), you need negation to use a NPI (grammatically).

108. Negative Polarity Items But it isn’t quite as simple as that. Consider: But it isn’t quite as simple as that. Consider: I didn’t see anyone. I didn’t see anyone. *I saw anyone. *I saw anyone. *Anyone didn’t see me. *Anyone didn’t see me. *Anyone saw me. *Anyone saw me. It seems that simply having negation in the sentence isn’t by itself enough to license the use of an NPI. It seems that simply having negation in the sentence isn’t by itself enough to license the use of an NPI.

109. Negative Polarity Items As a first pass, we might say that negation has to precede the NPI. As a first pass, we might say that negation has to precede the NPI. I didn’t see anyone. I didn’t see anyone. *Anyone didn’t see me. *Anyone didn’t see me. But that’s not quite it either. But that’s not quite it either. *[That John didn’t stay] surprised anyone. *[That John didn’t stay] surprised anyone. [That John didn’t stay] didn’t surprise anyone. [That John didn’t stay] didn’t surprise anyone.

110. Negative Polarity Items *[That John didn’t stay] surprised anyone. *[That John didn’t stay] surprised anyone. [That John didn’t stay] didn’t surprise anyone. [That John didn’t stay] didn’t surprise anyone. TP VP not VNPI T TP NPVP not V T John CP C that stay did surprise

111. Structural ambiguity John said that Bill slipped in the kitchen. John said that Bill slipped in the kitchen. This sentence has two possible meanings; either John said it in the kitchen, or Bill slipped in the kitchen (according to John). This sentence has two possible meanings; either John said it in the kitchen, or Bill slipped in the kitchen (according to John). John said that Bill will leave yesterday. John said that Bill will leave yesterday. John said that Bill will leave tomorrow. John said that Bill will leave tomorrow.

112. Structural ambiguity TP NPVP VCP T John-ed say C that TP NPVP V T Bill-ed slip PP in the kitchen TP NPVP VCP T John-ed say C that TP NPVP V T Bill-ed slip PP in the kitchen

113. Negative Polarity Items John said that Bill didn’t slip in any room in the house. John said that Bill didn’t slip in any room in the house. Suddenly, it has only one meaning. Why? Suddenly, it has only one meaning. Why? John said: In no room did Bill slip. John said: In no room did Bill slip. *John said in any room: Bill didn’t slip. *John said in any room: Bill didn’t slip.

114. Negative Polarity Items TP NPVP VCP T John-ed say C that TP NPVP V T Billdid slip PP in any room TP NPVP VCP T John-ed say C that TP NPVP V T Billdid slip PP in any room Neg not Neg not *

115. Negative Polarity Items How about: How about: John didn’t say that Bill slipped in any room in the house. John didn’t say that Bill slipped in any room in the house. What do we predict? What do we predict?

116. Negative Polarity Items TP NPVP VCP T Johndid say C that TP NPVP V T Mary-ed slip PP in any room TP NPVP VCP T Johndid say C that TP NPVP V T Mary-ed slip PP in any room Neg not Neg not

117. Negative Polarity Items John didn’t say that Mary slipped in any room in the house. John didn’t say that Mary slipped in any room in the house. …He said that when he was out in the yard… …He said that when he was out in the yard… …He said that she slipped on the sidewalk… …He said that she slipped on the sidewalk… Both meanings are good, because both possible structural positions for the NPI are c-commanded (thus licensed) by the negation. Both meanings are good, because both possible structural positions for the NPI are c-commanded (thus licensed) by the negation.

118. Binding Theory Binding Theory is primarily concerned with explaining the distribution of three kinds of noun phrases: Binding Theory is primarily concerned with explaining the distribution of three kinds of noun phrases: Anaphors. Expressions like himself, herself, myself, each other. Anaphors. Expressions like himself, herself, myself, each other. Pronouns. Expressions like him, her. Pronouns. Expressions like him, her. R-expressions. Referring expressions like Pat, Chris. R-expressions. Referring expressions like Pat, Chris.

119. R-expressions R-expressions are NPs like Pat, or the professor, or an unlucky farmer, which get their meaning by referring to something in the world. Most NPs are like this. R-expressions are NPs like Pat, or the professor, or an unlucky farmer, which get their meaning by referring to something in the world. Most NPs are like this.

120. Anaphors An anaphor does not get its meaning from something in the world—it depends on something else in the sentence. An anaphor does not get its meaning from something in the world—it depends on something else in the sentence. John saw himself in the mirror. John saw himself in the mirror. Mary bought herself a sandwich. Mary bought herself a sandwich.

121. Pronouns A pronoun is similar to an anaphor in that it doesn’t refer to something in the world but gets its reference from something else. A pronoun is similar to an anaphor in that it doesn’t refer to something in the world but gets its reference from something else. John told Mary that he likes pizza. John told Mary that he likes pizza. Mary wondered if she agreed. Mary wondered if she agreed. Mary concluded that he was crazy. Mary concluded that he was crazy. …but it doesn’t need to be something in the sentence. …but it doesn’t need to be something in the sentence.

122. Anaphors and pronouns Anaphors and pronouns are referentially dependent, they do not have an intrinsic meaning. Anaphors and pronouns are referentially dependent, they do not have an intrinsic meaning. Anaphors: himself, herself, myself, yourself, itself, themselves, yourselves, ourselves. Very similar are reciprocals like each other. Anaphors: himself, herself, myself, yourself, itself, themselves, yourselves, ourselves. Very similar are reciprocals like each other. Pronouns: he, him, she, her, I, me, you, them, it, we, us. Pronouns: he, him, she, her, I, me, you, them, it, we, us.

123. The problem It turns out that there are very specific configurations in which pronouns, anaphors, and R-expressions can/must be used. It turns out that there are very specific configurations in which pronouns, anaphors, and R-expressions can/must be used. Even though both he and himself could refer to John below, you can’t just choose freely between them. Even though both he and himself could refer to John below, you can’t just choose freely between them. John saw himself. John saw himself. *John saw him. *John saw him. John thinks that Mary likes him. John thinks that Mary likes him. *John thinks that Mary likes himself. *John thinks that Mary likes himself. John thinks that he is a genius. John thinks that he is a genius. *John thinks that himself is a genius. *John thinks that himself is a genius.

124. The problem The question Binding Theory strives to answer is: The question Binding Theory strives to answer is: When do you use anaphors, pronouns, and R-expressions? When do you use anaphors, pronouns, and R-expressions?

125. Indices and antecedents Anaphors and pronouns are referentially dependent; they can (or must) be co- referential with another NP in the sentence. Anaphors and pronouns are referentially dependent; they can (or must) be co- referential with another NP in the sentence. The way we indicate that two NPs are co- referential is by means of an index, usually a subscripted letter. Two NPs that share the same index (that are coindexed) also share the same referent. The way we indicate that two NPs are co- referential is by means of an index, usually a subscripted letter. Two NPs that share the same index (that are coindexed) also share the same referent. John i saw himself i in the mirror. John i saw himself i in the mirror.

126. Indices and antecedents John i saw himself i in the mirror. John i saw himself i in the mirror. The NP from which an anaphor or pronoun draws its reference is called the antecedent. The NP from which an anaphor or pronoun draws its reference is called the antecedent. John is the antecedent for himself. John and himself are co-referential. John is the antecedent for himself. John and himself are co-referential.

127. Constraints on co-reference John i saw himself i. John i saw himself i. Himself i saw John i. Himself i saw John i. *John i ’s mother saw himself i. *John i ’s mother saw himself i. It is impossible to assign the same referent to John and himself in the second and third sentences. What is different between the good and bad sentences? It is impossible to assign the same referent to John and himself in the second and third sentences. What is different between the good and bad sentences?

128. Binding What is the difference between the relationship between John and himself in the first case and in the second case? What is the difference between the relationship between John and himself in the first case and in the second case? see himself -ed NP N TP T NP i V VP John see himself -ed NP i N TP T NP i V VP N mother N John’s NP i N *

129. Binding In the first case, the NP John c-commands the NP himself. But not in the second case. In the first case, the NP John c-commands the NP himself. But not in the second case. see himself -ed NP N TP T NP i V VP John see himself -ed NP i N TP T NP i V VP N mother N John’s NP i N *

130. Binding When one NP c-commands and is coindexed with another NP, the first is said to bind the other. When one NP c-commands and is coindexed with another NP, the first is said to bind the other. see himself -ed NP N TP T NP i V VP John see himself -ed NP i N TP T NP i V VP N mother N John’s NP i N *

131. Binding Definition: A binds B iff Definition: A binds B iff A c-commands B A c-commands B A is coindexed with B “if and only if” A is coindexed with B “if and only if” see himself -ed NP N TP T NP i V VP John see himself -ed NP i N TP T NP i V VP N mother N John’s NP i N *

132. Principle A Principle A of the Binding Theory (preliminary): An anaphor must be bound. Principle A of the Binding Theory (preliminary): An anaphor must be bound. see himself -ed NP N TP T NP i V VP John see himself -ed NP i N TP T NP i V VP N mother N John’s NP i N *

133. Principle A This also explains why the following sentences are ungrammatical: This also explains why the following sentences are ungrammatical: *Himself i saw John i in the mirror. *Himself i saw John i in the mirror. *Herself i likes Mary i ’s father. *Herself i likes Mary i ’s father. *Himself i likes Mary’s father i. *Himself i likes Mary’s father i. There is nothing which c-commands and is coindexed with himself and herself. The anaphors are not bound, which violates Principle A. There is nothing which c-commands and is coindexed with himself and herself. The anaphors are not bound, which violates Principle A.

134. Binding domains But this is not the end of the story; consider But this is not the end of the story; consider *John i said that himself i likes pizza. *John i said that himself i likes pizza. *John i said that Mary called himself i. *John i said that Mary called himself i. In these sentences the NP John c-commands and is coindexed with (=binds) himself, satisfying our preliminary version of Principle A—but the sentences are ungrammatical. In these sentences the NP John c-commands and is coindexed with (=binds) himself, satisfying our preliminary version of Principle A—but the sentences are ungrammatical. John didn’t say that anyone likes pizza. John didn’t say that anyone likes pizza. John didn’t say that Mary called anyone. John didn’t say that Mary called anyone.

135. Binding domains John i saw himself i in the mirror. John i saw himself i in the mirror. John i gave a book to himself i. John i gave a book to himself i. *John i said that himself i is a genius. *John i said that himself i is a genius. *John i said that Mary dislikes himself i. *John i said that Mary dislikes himself i. What is wrong? John binds himself in every case. What is different? What is wrong? John binds himself in every case. What is different? In the ungrammatical cases, himself is in an embedded clause. In the ungrammatical cases, himself is in an embedded clause.

136. Binding domains It seems that not only does an anaphor need to be bound, it needs to be bound nearby (or locally). It seems that not only does an anaphor need to be bound, it needs to be bound nearby (or locally). Principle A (revised): An anaphor must be bound in its binding domain. Binding Domain (preliminary): The binding domain of an anaphor is the smallest clause containing it. Principle A (revised): An anaphor must be bound in its binding domain. Binding Domain (preliminary): The binding domain of an anaphor is the smallest clause containing it.

137. Pronouns *John i saw him i in the mirror. *John i saw him i in the mirror. John i said that he i is a genius. John i said that he i is a genius. John i said that Mary dislikes him i. John i said that Mary dislikes him i. John i saw him j in the mirror. John i saw him j in the mirror. How does the distribution of pronouns differ from the distribution of anaphors? How does the distribution of pronouns differ from the distribution of anaphors? It looks like it is just the opposite. It looks like it is just the opposite.

138. Principle B Principle B A pronoun must be free in its binding domain. Free Not bound Principle B A pronoun must be free in its binding domain. Free Not bound *John i saw him i. *John i saw him i. John i ’s mother saw him i. John i ’s mother saw him i.

139. Principle C We now know where pronouns and anaphors are allowed. So what’s wrong with these sentences? The pronouns are unbound as needed for Principle B. What are the binding relations here? We now know where pronouns and anaphors are allowed. So what’s wrong with these sentences? The pronouns are unbound as needed for Principle B. What are the binding relations here? *He i likes John i. *He i likes John i. *She i said that Mary i fears clowns. *She i said that Mary i fears clowns. His i mother likes John i. His i mother likes John i.

140. Principle C Binding is a means of assigning reference. Binding is a means of assigning reference. R-expressions have intrinsic reference; they can’t be assigned their reference from somewhere else. R-expressions have intrinsic reference; they can’t be assigned their reference from somewhere else. R-expressions can’t be bound, at all. R-expressions can’t be bound, at all. Principle C An r-expression must be free. Principle C An r-expression must be free.

141. Binding Theory Principle A An anaphor must be bound in its binding domain. Principle B A pronoun must be free in its binding domain. Principle C An r-expression must be free. Principle A An anaphor must be bound in its binding domain. Principle B A pronoun must be free in its binding domain. Principle C An r-expression must be free. In several weeks, we will return to the Binding Theory to revise the definition of binding domain (it is more complicated than “smallest clause”). In several weeks, we will return to the Binding Theory to revise the definition of binding domain (it is more complicated than “smallest clause”).

142.                       