1. PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook The University of West Alabama Fundamentals of Management Sixth Edition Robbins and DeCenzo with contributions from Henry Moon C H A P T E R 8 Part IV: Leading © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. Foundations of Individual and Group Behavior

2. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–2 L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S 1.Define the focus and goals of organizational behavior. 2.Identify and describe the three components of attitudes. 3.Explain cognitive dissonance. 4.Describe the Myers-Briggs personality type framework and its use in organizations. 5.Define perception and describe the factors that can shape or distort perception. 6.Explain how managers can shape employee behavior. 7.Contrast formal and informal groups. After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

3. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–3 L E A R N I N G O U T C O M E S (cont’d) 8.Explain why people join groups. 9.State how roles and norms influence employees’ behavior. 10.Describe how group size affects group behavior. After reading this chapter, you will be able to:

4. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–4 Organizational Behavior (OB) Defined:Organizational Behavior (OB) Defined:  The study of the actions of people at work The Focus of OBThe Focus of OB  Individual behaviors  Personality, perception, learning, and motivation  Group behaviors  Norms, roles, team-and conflict The Goals of OBThe Goals of OB  To explain behavior  To predict behavior Toward Explaining and Predicting Behavior

5. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–5 EXHIBIT 8–1The Organization as an Iceberg Metaphor

6. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–6 Behaviors of Interest to OB Employee ProductivityEmployee Productivity  The efficiency and effectiveness of employees AbsenteeismAbsenteeism  The election by employees to attend work TurnoverTurnover  The exit of an employee from an organization Organizational CitizenshipOrganizational Citizenship  Employee behaviors that promote the welfare of the organization

7. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–7 Understanding Employees AttitudesAttitudes  Valuative statements concerning objects, people, or events  Cognitive component –The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a person  Affective component –The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude  Behavioral component –An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something

8. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–8 Job-Related Attitudes Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction  An employee’s general attitude toward his or her job. Job InvolvementJob Involvement  The degree to which an employee identifies with his or her job, actively participates in it, and considers his or her job performance important for self-worth. Organizational CommitmentOrganizational Commitment  An employee’s orientation toward the organization in terms of his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization.

9. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–9 Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance  Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes  Inconsistency is uncomfortable and individuals will seek a stable state with a minimum of dissonance. Desire to reduce dissonance is determined by:Desire to reduce dissonance is determined by:  The importance of the elements creating the dissonance.  The degree of influence the individual believes he or she has over the elements.  The rewards that may be involved.

10. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–10 Fostering Positive Job Attitudes Managers can reduce dissonance by:Managers can reduce dissonance by:  Creating the perception that the source of the dissonance is externally imposed and uncontrollable.  Increasing employee rewards for engaging in the behaviors related to the dissonance. Satisfied workers are not necessarily more productive workers.Satisfied workers are not necessarily more productive workers.  Assisting employees in successful performance of their jobs will increase their desired outcomes and lead to increased job satisfaction—focusing on productivity as a means rather than an ends.

11. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–11 Personality and Behavior PersonalityPersonality  Is the combination of the psychological traits that characterize that person. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI ® )Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI ® )  A method of identifying personality types uses four dimensions of personality to identify 16 different personality types. Big Five ModelBig Five Model  Five-factor model of personality that includes extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience.

12. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–12 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extroversion versus Introversion (EI)Extroversion versus Introversion (EI)  An individual’s orientation toward the inner world of ideas (I) or the external world of the environment (E). Sensing versus Intuitive (SN)Sensing versus Intuitive (SN)  An individual’s reliance on information gathered from the external world (S) or from the world of ideas (N). Thinking versus Feeling (TF)Thinking versus Feeling (TF)  One’s preference for evaluating information in an analytical manner (T) or on the basis of values and beliefs (F). Judging versus Perceiving (JP).Judging versus Perceiving (JP).  Reflects an attitude toward the external world that is either task completion oriented (J) or information seeking (P).

13. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–13 EXHIBIT 8–2Characteristics Associated with Myers-Briggs Types Source: Modified and reproduced by special permission of the publisher. Consulting Psychologists Press. Inc., Palo Alto, CA 94303, from Introduction to Type, 6th ed., by Isabel Myers-Briggs and Katherine C. Briggs. Copyright 1998 by Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Further reproduction is prohibited without publisher’s written consent. Introduction to Type is trademark of Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc. (The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and MBTI are registered trademarks of Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.)

14. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–14 The Big Five Model of Personality 1.Extroversion the degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, and assertive. 2.Agreeableness the degree to which someone is good- natured, cooperative, and trusting. 3.Conscientiousness the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement oriented. 4.Emotional stability the degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure (positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative). 5.Openness to experience the degree to which someone is imaginative, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

15. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–15 What Is Emotional Intelligence (EI)? Emotional Intelligence (EI)Emotional Intelligence (EI)  An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures. Dimensions of EIDimensions of EI  Self-awareness own feelings  Self-management of own emotions  Self-motivation in face of setbacks  Empathy for others’ feelings  Social skills to handle others’ emotions

16. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–16 Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors Locus of ControlLocus of Control  A personality attribute that measures the degree to which people believe that they are masters of their own fate. Machiavellianism (“Mach”)Machiavellianism (“Mach”)  A measure of the degree to which people are pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends can justify means.

17. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–17 Personality Traits And Work-related Behaviors (cont’d) Self-Esteem (SE)Self-Esteem (SE)  An individual’s degree of life dislike for him- or herself Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring  A measure of an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors Propensity for Risk TakingPropensity for Risk Taking  The willingness to take chances—a preference to assume or avoid risk

18. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–18 Matching Personalities And Jobs Matching Personalities And Jobs PersonJob Performanc e

19. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–19 EXHIBIT 8–3Holland’s Typology of Personality and Sample Occupations Source: Reproduced by special permission of the publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., Making Vocational Choices, 3rd ed., copyright 1973, 1985, 1992, 1997 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All rights reserved.

20. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–20 EXHIBIT 8–4Relationship Among Occupational Personality Types Source: Reproduced by special permission of the publisher, Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., Making Vocational Choices, 3rd ed., copyright 1973, 1985, 1992, 1997 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. All rights reserved.

21. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–21 Key Points of Holland’s Model There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among individuals.There do appear to be intrinsic differences in personality among individuals. There are different types of jobs.There are different types of jobs. People in job environments congruent with their personality types should be more satisfied and less likely to resign voluntarily than people in incongruent jobs.People in job environments congruent with their personality types should be more satisfied and less likely to resign voluntarily than people in incongruent jobs.

22. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–22 Personality Characteristics of Entrepreneurs Proactive PersonalityProactive Personality  High level of motivation  Internal locus of control  Need for autonomy  Abundance of self-confidence  Self-esteem  High energy levels  Persistence  Moderate risk taker  Problem solver

23. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–23 Perception PerceptionPerception  A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

24. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–24 Influences on Perception Personal CharacteristicsPersonal Characteristics  Attitudes  Personality  Motives  Interests  Past experiences  Expectations Target CharacteristicsTarget Characteristics  Relationship of a target to its background  Closeness and/or similarity to other things  The context in object is seen  Other situational factors.

25. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–25 EXHIBIT 8–5Perceptual Challenges: What Do You See?

26. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–26 How Do Managers Judge Employees? Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory  A theory based on the premise that we judge people differently depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.  Internally caused behavior is believed to be under the control of the individual.  Externally caused behavior results from outside causes; that is, the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation.

27. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–27 Interpreting Behavior DistinctivenessDistinctiveness  Whether an individual displays a behavior in many situations or whether it is particular to one situation. ConsensusConsensus  If the individual responds in the same way as everyone else faced with a similar situation responds. ConsistencyConsistency  The individual engages in the same behaviors regularly and consistently over time.

28. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–28 EXHIBIT 8–6The Process of Attribution Theory

29. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–29 Judgment Errors Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error  The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others. Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias  The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

30. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–30 EXHIBIT 8–7Distortions in Shortcut Methods in Judging Others Selectivity Assumed similarity Stereotyping Halo effect Self-fulfilling prophecy

31. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–31 Learning Learning DefinedLearning Defined  Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)Operant Conditioning (B. F. Skinner)  Argues that voluntary, or learned, behavior is a function of its consequences.  Reinforcement increases the likelihood that behavior will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to be repeated.  Rewards are most effective if they immediately follow the desired response.

32. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–32 Learning (cont’d) Social Learning TheorySocial Learning Theory  The theory that people can learn through observation and direct experience; by modeling the behavior of others. Modeling ProcessesModeling Processes  Attentional processes  Retention processes  Motor reproduction processes  Reinforcement processes

33. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–33 Shaping Behavior Shaping BehaviorShaping Behavior  Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to a desired behavior Ways To Shape Behavior:Ways To Shape Behavior:  Positive reinforcement  Negative reinforcement  Punishment  Extinction

34. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–34 Steps in Shaping Behavior 1.Identify the critical behaviors that have a significant impact on an employee’s performance. 2.Establish a baseline of performance. 3.Analyze the contributing factors to performance and their consequences. 4.Develop a shaping strategy. 5.Apply the appropriate strategy. 6.Measure the change that has occurred. 7.Reinforce desired behaviors.

35. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–35 Foundations Of Group Behavior What is a Group?What is a Group?  Two or more interacting and interdependent individuals who come together to achieve particular objectives Basic Concepts of Group BehaviorBasic Concepts of Group Behavior  Role  A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone in a given position in a social unit  Norms  Acceptable standards (e.g., effort and performance, dress, and loyalty) shared and enforced by the members of a group

36. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–36 EXHIBIT 8–8Reasons Why People Join Groups Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal achievement

37. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–37 Foundations Of Group Behavior (cont’d) StatusStatus  A prestige grading, position, or rank within a group  May be informally conferred by characteristics such as education, age, skill, or experience.  Anything can have status value if others in the group admire it.

38. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–38 EXHIBIT 8–9Examples of Cards Used in Asch Study Solomon Asch and Group Conformity: Does the desire to be accepted as a part of a group leave one susceptible to conforming to the group’s norms? Will the group exert pressure that is strong enough to change a member’s attitude and behavior? According to the research by Solomon Asch, the answer appears to be yes.

39. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–39 Group Effects SizeSize  Size is a benefit or a hindrance depending on the criteria considered.  Social loafing: the tendency of individuals in a group to decrease their efforts when responsibility and individual achievement cannot be measured. Group CohesivenessGroup Cohesiveness  The degree to which members of a group are attracted to each other and share goals  Size, work environment, Length of time in existence, group- organization, and goal congruency affect group cohesiveness.

40. © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.8–40 EXHIBIT 8–10The Relationship Between Group Cohesiveness and Productivity