1. User and Task Analysis Determine the boundaries of the system/network
Identify users
Collect information from/about uses
Interviews
Interviewing methods
Observations
Environment
Work practices, tools
Document analysis
Generate a user-task matrix

2. Grade system USERS TASKS Faculty students staff View student list x
Enter grades
View grades
Only own
Generate summary reports

3. Identifying users What is the system (service, product, and so forth)?
Goals
Boundaries
How decided
mandated – by organizational goals, client…
In the course of interviews
In discussions with client, team…

4. Social Construction of Technology (SCOT)
Identify & describe relevant social groups
Sociologically deconstruct the artifact for what it means for each group
Develop requirements, design that meets various groups’ needs, preferences
The same artifact may solve different problems for different user groups
Any one problem/need has multiple solutions
Trying to find the overlap where one design will satisfy multiple groups with different needs

5. Sociotechnical networks
Amalgam of people, practices, standards, rules, understandings, tools….
Social and material

6. Types of Users Decision makers (e.g., purchasers)
Market researchers tend to concentrate on the people who buy; designers on the people who perform tasks.
Primary users (do the work)
Secondary users -- E.g., the customer of the travel agent
Surrogate users -- e.g., librarians, customer service reps
May not speak effectively for the products’ users.
(But may be efficient source of information –)
Gatekeepers, early adopters

7. CourseWeb: course web pages

8. Users’ characteristics
Job/task/domain-related
When relevant, technology-related
Personal
Physical, cultural, motivational…
Other?

9. H&R: users based on stages of use (expertise)
Novices
May be new to subject, technology, product
Are goal and task-oriented
May not want to learn, but do
Advanced beginners
Use infrequently and incidentally
Are focused on getting job done as quickly and painlessly as possible
Have begun to form mental model or concept of how system works
Concentrate on a few needed tasks which can perform well

10. H&R: users based on stages of use (expertise) II
Competent performers
Have learned enough tasks that they have sound mental model of subject and product
Can recognize incorrect series of actions and correct them
Expert performers
Use frequently as integral part of activity
Have considerable subject matter knowledge
Are skilled at solving problems
Have comprehensive understanding of whole

11. Goals, Tasks, Activities

12. Goals Defined in USERS’ terms (I.e., not YOURS) Multiple
Sometimes conflicting
Between individual and organization
Between individuals, workgroups, etc.
Within individual
Can change over time
What do people do when problems, conflicts?

13. Tasks What someone does to achieve a goal Multi tasks, same goal
See how people choose tasks to achieve goals
Time, effort, what they already know, history, habit, social pressure/models…
Differences across users…
What people do when problems – give up goal, change tasks…
Changing tasks, goals
Improvisation

14. Activities Specific actions Intentional and otherwise
Importance of unintentional consequences of intentional action

15. Suchman on plans and situated action
Some see plans as either formal structures that control action or abstractions across instances.
Instead, argues plans are resources for situated action.
Inherently vague; detail of intent and action contingent on circumstantial and interactional particulars of situation.
Foundation of action is not plans but local interactions with our environment more or less informed by abstract representations of situations and actions.
They position us to, thru local interactions, exploit some contingencies and avoid others.
Rafting as an example.

16. Types and levels of task analysis
Workflow analysis
Job analysis
Process analysis, task sequence
Task hierarchies
Procedure analysis:
how they do it now. Technology-dependent.
Pay attention to exceptions

17. Doing task analysis – possible foci
Job – multi people this job
Person – not just in the job
Task – more than one person
Place
Flow of information, artifacts

18. Types of Interviews Structured Semi-structured
Informal, conversational
Group
Individual

19. Related:
Mental models
Scenarios
Personas

20. Collecting data from users
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus groups

21. Setting Up Field Studies
Write down issues and objectives
Identify participants to represent groups that you need to talk with
Plan 1-2 hour visits with time between users
Screen users with a questionnaire

22. Selecting participants
People who represent various activities, points of view, experience and skill levels
Look for people who are thoughtful and articulate
Ask around – see who gets recommended
Beware of the person who wants to be your ‘best friend’
But key informants are invaluable: people who know a lot and will share it with you

23. Preparing for Field Studies
Form team – 1-2 observers for each user, include marketing and development
Train team to observe and interview and to avoid being experts or defensive
Demographic questionnaire, release forms
Audio taping equipment, camera
Notebook for taking notes, sketching environment

24. Preparing for interviews
Do it in their environment if you can – but be aware of problems of noise, interruption, confidentiality
NOTICE things
Send them ahead of time about purpose of study, who you are, why you are coming, what you will ask them about
Tell them how much time you expect to need, and don’t run overtime without their agreement

25. The interview Begin by establishing rapport
Who you are, purpose, confidentiality
Establish stop time and how firm
Tape if you can; offer to turn the tape off at any time
Note-taking
‘Walking out the door’ comments – often the most useful!

26. Observing in Field Studies
Take pictures, sketch the environment
Note everything the user does, what triggers it
Who does the user interact with
What paper or information is passed
Get copies of artifacts, preferably used
Where does task end, does the user know what happens next

27. Interviewing in Field Studies
Ask about goals, don’t just focus on tasks, listen for goals for the benefit of others
Probe goals, tasks presented as goals
Neutral vs. leading or blaming questions
Don’t be shy, ask for more information, provide active feedback that you are listening
Ask user if your interpretation is correct, listen for “no” in pauses, maybes

28. Gaining Trust
Explain clearly the purpose of study, why you want to talk to them
PROMISE CONFIDENTIALITY
Be honest
Be interested
Be sympathetic – but not artificially so
LISTEN
How you talk about others is how they assume you will talk about them
Re sources of conflict

29. Contextual inquiry