1. Theories about intergenerational solidarity Matthijs Kalmijn Department of Social Cultural Sciences Tilburg University, Netherlands Lecture for Socrates Intensive Program 2006

2. Socrates 20062 Intergenerational solidarity Exchanges between (older) parents and (grown- up) children

3. Socrates 20063 Types of support Practical support (services) Financial support Social support (visits, contact, attention)

4. Socrates 20064 Definition Doing something that is a benefit to the other (and a cost to you) Both directions: >Upward (from children to parents) >Downward (from parents to children)

5. Socrates 20065 Research issues Variation in intergenerational solidarity >Across individuals >Across social groups >Across countries >Over time

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12. Socrates 200612 Theories 1.Exchange 2.Altruism 3.Norms

13. Socrates 200613 Theories - continued Emphasized by different disciplines >Norms – traditional sociological model of man >Exchange – traditional economic model of man >Altruism – psychology and sociology Competing theories >Which theory is most valid? More general theoretical issue >How do we explain people’s social behavior?

14. Socrates 200614 (1) Exchange Rational actors >Considerations of costs and benefits for ego Selfish actors >Act only when benefits ego > costs ego People do something for their parents because it makes them better off

15. Socrates 200615 Forms of exchange Direct exchange >Quid pro quo (Something for something) Delayed exchange >Parents invest in children early in life and children give support back later >Insurance element >Uncertainty Prospective exchange >Children give support to parents in order to receive something later from their parents

16. Socrates 200616 Empirical test 1 Hypothesis: >The support of parents to children decreases over the life course and the support of children to parents increases over the life course

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18. Socrates 200618 Empirical test 2 Hypothesis: >The more parents have invested in children when the children are young, the more support they receive from the children when they are old

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20. Socrates 200620 Empirical test 3 Hypothesis: >The more wealth parents have, the more often children visit their parents Research on bequests Confirms hypothesis! Only in multiple child families

21. Socrates 200621 (2) Altruism Critique on exchange >Different types of relations >Different types of behavior

22. Socrates 200622 Primary relations Secondary relations

23. Socrates 200623 SelfishnessAltruism Primary relations Secondary relations

24. Socrates 200624 SelfishnessAltruism Primary relations X Family Friends Secondary relations Business partners Neighbors X

25. Socrates 200625 Definition of altruism Altruism is doing something for someone out of concern for the other’s well-being Rational behavior >Behavior based on the costs/benefits for the other

26. Socrates 200626 Empirical test 1 Hypothesis >The greater the need of the parent, the more support the children will give Evidence >More support to widowed parents than to married parents >More support to ill parents than to healthy parents

27. Socrates 200627 Empirical test 2 Hypothesis >The greater the need of the child, the more support the parent will give Research on financial transfers to children Comparisons across children The poorest children do not get more than the richest children >Equity versus need

28. Socrates 200628 (3) Norms General expectation of how to act >External norm (via sanctions) >Internalized norm Norms of filial obligation >Feeling that one should care for one’s family >Unconditional Should not depend on own cost Should not depend on own what they did for you (or did not do for you) Norm of reciprocity >Feeling that one should ‘return favors’

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31. Socrates 200631 child parent sibling grandp grandc niece aunt cousin

32. Socrates 200632 Empirical test 1 Hypothesis >The more people adhere to kinship norms, the more support they give to their parents Research shows positive relationship for individual adult children Macro-level test

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34. Socrates 200634 Causal direction? Norms of filial obligation Support to parents causal effect attitude adjustment

35. Socrates 200635 Alternative test Test of: >Norm of reciprocity versus rational exchange >Focus on consequences of support: Perceived quality Consider the following possibilities: 1.Ego gives more 2.Balance 3.Ego gives less

36. Socrates 200636 Normative approach Rational approach Ego gives more than s/he receives Balance Ego receives more than s/he receives

37. Socrates 200637 Normative approach Rational approach Ego gives more than s/he receives Worst BalanceBest Ego receives more than s/he receives Worst

38. Socrates 200638 Normative approach Rational approach Ego gives more than s/he receives Worst BalanceBestNeutral Ego receives more than s/he receives WorstBest

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41. Socrates 200641 Conclusion 1.Solidarity toward the elderly is perfectly compatible with a rational and selfish model of man 2.The high levels of family solidarity in southern Europe (compared to the western/northern parts of Europe) point to higher levels of altruism in the south 3.Coresidence of parents and older children is not a form of “children helping parents” – it is a continuation of “parents helping children” 4.The lower levels of intergenerational contact among the higher educated can be explained by weaker norms of filial obligation among the higher educated 5.The increase in divorce threatens intergenerational solidarity

42. Socrates 200642 More reading? >Review paper (presented to Netspar) http://www.netspar.nl/events/pensiondays/upcoming/nov24/