1. Chapter Eighteen Technology

2. Technologies  A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output  E.g. seed, chemical fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides, labour, land, machinery, fuel are combined to grow wheat

3. Technologies  Usually several technologies will produce the same product – e.g. wheat can be grown with conventional technology or organically without chemicals, using animal fertilizer and more labour instead  How do economists analyse technologies?

4. Production Functions  y denotes the output level  x i denotes the amount used of input i; i.e. the level of input i  The technology’s production function states the maximum amount of output possible from an input bundle

5. Production Functions y = f(x) is the production function. x’x Input Level Output Level y’ y’ = f(x’) is the maximal output level obtainable from x’ input units. One input, one output

6. Technology Sets  A production plan is an input bundle and an output level: (x 1, …, x n, y).  A production plan is feasible if  The collection of all feasible production plans is the technology set.

7. Technology Sets y = f(x) is the production function. x’x Input Level Output Level y’ y” y’ = f(x’) is the maximum output level obtainable from x’ input units. One input, one output y” = f(x’) is an output level that is feasible from x’ input units.

8. Technology Sets x’x Input Level Output Level y’ One input, one output y” The technology set

9. Technology Sets x’x Input Level Output Level y’ One input, one output y” The technology set Technically inefficient plans Technically efficient plans

10. Technologies with Multiple Inputs  What does a technology look like when there is more than one input?  The two input case: Input levels are x 1 and x 2. Output level is y.  Suppose the production function is

11. Technologies with Two Inputs  E.g. the maximal output level possible from the input bundle (x 1, x 2 ) = (1, 8) is  And the maximal output level possible from (x 1,x 2 ) = (8,8) is

12. Technologies with Two Inputs Output, y x1x1 x2x2 (8,1) (8,8)

13. Technologies with Two Inputs  An isoquant shows all input bundles that yield at most the same output level, say y=y 1  An isoquant is drawn on a graph where the axes measure the levels of the two inputs

14. Isoquants with Two Variable Inputs y  y  x1x1 x2x2 y  y 

15. Isoquants with Two Variable Inputs Output, y x1x1 x2x2 y  y  y  y 

16. Technologies with Two Inputs  The complete collection of isoquants is the isoquant map  The isoquant map is equivalent to the production function – they each contain the same information about the technology  E.g.

17. Technologies with Two Inputs x1x1 x2x2 y

18. Technologies with Multiple Inputs x1x1 x2x2 y

19. x1x1 x2x2 y

20. x1x1 x2x2 y

21. x1x1 x2x2 y

22. x1x1 x2x2 y

23. x1x1 y

24. x1x1 y

25. x1x1 y

26. x1x1 y

27. x1x1 y

28. x1x1 y

29. x1x1 y

30. x1x1 y

31. x1x1 y

32. x1x1 y

33. Cobb-Douglas Technology  A Cobb-Douglas production function is of the form  E.g. with

34. x2x2 x1x1 All isoquants are hyperbolic, asymptoting to, but never touching any axis. Cobb-Douglas Technology

35. x2x2 x1x1 All isoquants are hyperbolic, asymptoting to, but never touching any axis. Cobb-Douglas Technology >

36. Fixed-Proportions Technology  A fixed-proportions production function is of the form  E.g. y = lectures per hour in the Leeuwenborch, x1 = lecturer, x2 = lecture room with

37. Fixed-Proportions Technology x2x2 x1x1 min{x 1,2x 2 } = 14 4814 2 4 7 min{x 1,2x 2 } = 8 min{x 1,2x 2 } = 4 x 1 = 2x 2

38. Perfect-Substitutes Technology  A perfect-substitutes production function is of the form  E.g. with

39. Perfect-Substitution Technology 9 3 18 6 24 8 x1x1 x2x2 x 1 + 3x 2 = 9 x 1 + 3x 2 = 18 x 1 + 3x 2 = 24 All are linear and parallel

40. Recap on Isoquants  Isoquants are generally downward- sloping from left to right (  inputs are substitutes) and convex to the origin  Limiting cases: Straight line (perfect substitutes) Right angle (perfect complements)

41. Marginal (Physical) Products  The marginal product of input i is the rate-of-change of the output level as the level of input i changes, holding all other input levels fixed.  That is,

42. Marginal (Physical) Products E.g. if then the marginal product of input 1 is

43. Marginal (Physical) Products E.g. if then the marginal product of input 1 is

44. Marginal (Physical) Products E.g. if then the marginal product of input 1 is and the marginal product of input 2 is

45. Marginal (Physical) Products E.g. if then the marginal product of input 1 is and the marginal product of input 2 is

46. Marginal (Physical) Products Typically the marginal product of one input depends upon the amount used of other inputs. E.g. if then, and if x 2 = 27 then if x 2 = 8,

47. Marginal (Physical) Products  The marginal product of input i is diminishing if it becomes smaller as the level of input i increases. That is, if

48. Marginal (Physical) Products and E.g. ifthen

49. Marginal (Physical) Products and so E.g. ifthen

50. Marginal (Physical) Products and so and E.g. ifthen

51. Marginal (Physical) Products and so and Both marginal products are diminishing. E.g. ifthen

52. Elasticity of Production  The value of the marginal physical product depends on the units of measurement of output and inputs  The elasticity of production is a unit- free measure of how the responsiveness of output to a change in an input

53. Elasticity of Production  Elasticity of production of input i is

54. Elasticity of Production: Example Cobb-Douglas  For the Cobb-Douglas production function, the elasticity of production of each input is the power to which that input is raised in the function Production elasticity of x 1 is a 1, production elasticity of x 2 is a 2

55. Returns to Scale  Marginal products describe the change in output level as a single input level changes  ‘Returns to scale’ describe how the output level changes as all input levels change by the same proportion (e.g. all input levels doubled, or halved)

56. Returns to Scale If, for any input bundle (x 1,…,x n ), then the technology described by the production function f exhibits constant returns to scale. E.g. (k = 2) doubling all input levels doubles the output level.

57. Returns to Scale y = f(x) x’x Input Level Output Level y’ One input, one output 2x’ 2y’ Constant returns to scale

58. Returns to Scale In general, for any input bundle (x 1,…,x n ), If t < 1, then the technology exhibits decreasing returns to scale E.g. (k = 2) all input levels double, but output increases by less than double If t > 1, then the technology exhibits increasing returns to scale

59. Returns to Scale y = f(x) x’x Input Level Output Level f(x’) One input, one output 2x’ f(2x’) 2f(x’) Decreasing returns to scale

60. Returns to Scale y = f(x) x’x Input Level Output Level f(x’) One input, one output 2x’ f(2x’) 2f(x’) Increasing returns to scale

61. Returns to Scale y = f(x) x Input Level Output Level One input, one output Decreasing returns to scale Increasing returns to scale

62. Examples of Returns to Scale The perfect-substitutes production function is Expand all input levels proportionately by k. The output level becomes The perfect-substitutes production function exhibits constant returns to scale.

63. Examples of Returns to Scale The Cobb-Douglas production function is Expand all input levels proportionately by k. The output level becomes

64. Examples of Returns to Scale The Cobb-Douglas production function is Expand all input levels proportionately by k. The output level becomes

65. Examples of Returns to Scale The Cobb-Douglas production function is Expand all input levels proportionately by k. The output level becomes

66. Examples of Returns to Scale The Cobb-Douglas production function is Expand all input levels proportionately by k. The output level becomes

67. Examples of Returns to Scale The Cobb-Douglas production function is The Cobb-Douglas technology’s returns to scale are constant if a 1 + … + a n = 1 increasing if a 1 + … + a n > 1 decreasing if a 1 + … + a n < 1

68. Returns to Scale  Q: Can a technology exhibit increasing returns-to-scale even though all of its marginal products are diminishing?  A: Yes, because…..

69. Returns to Scale  A marginal product is the rate-of- change of output as one input level increases, holding all other input levels fixed, and so  the marginal product diminishes because the other input levels are fixed, so the increasing input’s units have each less and less of other inputs with which to work.

70. Returns to Scale  BUT when all input levels are increased proportionately, there need be no diminution of marginal products since each input will always have proportionately the same amount of other inputs to work with. Input productivities need not fall and so returns-to-scale can be constant or increasing.

71. Technical Rate of Substitution  At what rate can a firm substitute one input for another without changing its output level?

72. Technical Rate of Substitution x2x2 x1x1 y 

73. Technical Rate of Substitution x2x2 x1x1 y  The slope is the rate at which input 2 must be given up as input 1’s level is increased so as not to change the output level. The slope of an isoquant is its technical rate of substitution

74. Technical Rate of Substitution  How is a technical rate of substitution computed?  The production function is  A small change (dx 1, dx 2 ) in the input bundle causes a change to the output level of

75. Technical Rate of Substitution But dy = 0 as we move around an isoquant, so the changes dx 1 and dx 2 to the input levels must satisfy

76. Technical Rate of Substitution rearranges to so

77. Technical Rate of Substitution is the rate at which input 2 must be given up as input 1 increases so as to keep the output level constant. It is the slope of the isoquant.

78. Technical Rate of Substitution; A Cobb-Douglas Example so and The technical rate-of-substitution is

79. Diminishing TRS when inputs are less- than-perfect substitutes  As we substitute more x 1 for x 2 (i.e. a move to the right around an isoquant), the TRS decreases (moves closer to zero): the slope of the isoquant becomes flatter. That is, we need ever-larger increase in x 1 to substitute for a given reduction in x 2, if we wish to keep output constant

80. Well-Behaved Technologies  A well-behaved technology is monotonic, and convex

81. Well-Behaved Technologies - Monotonicity  Monotonicity: More of any input generates more output. y x y x monotonic not monotonic

82. Well-Behaved Technologies - Convexity  Convexity: If the input bundles x’ and x” both provide y units of output then the mixture tx’ + (1-t)x” provides at least y units of output, for any 0 < t < 1.

83. Well-Behaved Technologies - Convexity x2x2 x1x1 y 

84. Well-Behaved Technologies - Convexity x2x2 x1x1 y 

85. Well-Behaved Technologies - Convexity x2x2 x1x1 y  y 

86. Well-Behaved Technologies - Convexity x2x2 x1x1 Convexity implies that the TRS increases (becomes less negative) as x 1 increases.

87. Well-Behaved Technologies x2x2 x1x1 y  y  y  higher output

88. The Long Run and the Short Run(s)  The long run is the situation in which a firm is unrestricted in its choice of all input levels  There are many possible short runs.  A short run is a situation in which a firm is restricted in some way in its choice of at least one input level  Read p.339 on fixed and variable factors

89. The Long Run and the Short Runs  Examples of restrictions that cause a short-run situation: temporarily being unable to install, or remove, machinery being unable to increase the number of dairy cows quickly total farm area is fixed in the ‘short run’

90. The Long Run and the Short Runs  What do short-run restrictions imply for a firm’s technology?  Suppose the short-run restriction is fixing the level of input 2  Input 2 is thus a fixed input in the short-run. Input 1 remains variable

91. The Long Run and the Short Runs x2x2 x1x1

92. x2x2 x1x1 y

93. x2x2 x1x1 y

94. x2x2 x1x1 y

95. x2x2 x1x1 y

96. x2x2 x1x1 y

97. x2x2 x1x1 y

98. x2x2 x1x1 y

99. x2x2 x1x1 y

100. x2x2 x1x1 y

101. x1x1 y

102. x1x1 y

103. x1x1 y Four short-run production functions.

104. The Long-Run and the Short-Runs is the long-run production function (both x 1 and x 2 are variable). The short-run production function when x 2  1 is The short-run production function when x 2  10 is

105. The Long-Run and the Short-Runs x1x1 y Four short-run production functions.

106. x2x2 x1x1 Technical Rate of Substitution; A Cobb-Douglas Example

107. x2x2 x1x1 8 4

108. x2x2 x1x1 6 12