1. New Yorker, Oct 9, 2000

2. Ergogenic aids fall into two categories:  Physical / Verbal –cheering, music, altitude training, sauna and massage, psychology etc.  Chemical and Pharmacological –anabolic steroids, stimulants, narcotic analgesics, beta blockers, diuretics, amino acids, vitamins etc.

3. Ergogenic Aids: History of Use  Ancient Greek Olympians ate mushrooms  Aztec athletes ate human hearts  In late 1800s, European cyclists took heroin, cocaine "speedballs," and ether-soaked sugar tablets  Winner of 1904 Olympic marathon took strychnine and brandy during race  Winner of 1920 Olympic 100-m dash drank sherry with raw egg before race  In 1960 Olympics, Danish cyclist died in road race from amphetamine  In 1967 Tour de France, famed British cyclist died, also from amphetamine  Olympic testing began in 1968 for stimulants

4. Ergogenic Aids: History of Use  Development of Dianabol  East German female swimmers of 1970s-1980s  Cyclists deaths (1987-1990)  Chinese female swimmers (1992-1994)  1998 Tour de France

5.  27 Chinese athletes removed from team  Bulgarian and Romanian weightlifting teams expelled  USATF relinquished drug testing –alleged >12 positive tests not reported last 2 years

6. Desire to Win by Elite Athletes  >90% would take it if assured of not being caught  >50% would take it even if side effects were lethal in 5 years A 1997 SI survey of elite US athletes asked whether they would take an illegal drug that guaranteed an Olympic gold medal.

7. Ergogenic Aids: Placebo Effect Ariel & Savill, MSSE, 1972

8. Increasing Muscle Mass  Anabolic steroids  Growth hormone  Protein supplements

9. Anabolic Steroids  Male hormones have anabolic effects –accelerated growth of muscle, bone, and red blood cells  Anabolic steroids are synthetic relatives to testosterone –high-volume training needed for beneficial effects –inhibit protein breakdown

10. Anabolic Steroids: Secondary Effects Androgenic effects –males: testicular atrophy, breast development,  sperm count, acne –females: masculinization, facial & chest hair growth, deepening of voice, acne Additional effects –aggressiveness, mood swings, altered glucose metabolism, thyroid, lipid profiles

11. Commonly Used Anabolic Steroids  Testosterone  Stanazolol  Nandrolone  DHEA  Androstenedione

12. DHEA and Androstenedione: Precursors of Testosterone

13. Androstenedione DHT Testosterone Estrone (E 1 ) Estradiol (E 2 ) DHEA

14. Effects of DHEA and Androstenedione After 12 Weeks of Training Wallace et al., MSSE, 1999

15. Protein Supplementation  Research suggests that athletes have 2-3X RDA higher protein needs  Typical American athletes already consume this amount  Increased carbohydrate intake more important to increasing muscle mass

16. Fatigue: Implications for Ergogenic Aids  Power/Speed events –muscle mass –CNS & sympathetic stimulation –acidosis –depletion of PCr  Endurance events –muscle glycogen depletion –low blood [glucose] –fat oxidation rate –dehydration –diminished O 2 delivery

17. Bicarbonate Loading  Intramuscular effects of acidosis –  PFK, phosphorylase –  Ca 2+ sensitivity –  cross-bridge force output –  ATP turnover –slows recovery rate  Effects of bicarbonate loading –  plasma pH –speeds H + and La - transport from muscle

18. Benefits of Bicarbonate Loading  not all studies report performance benefits –dependent on dosing –benefits maximal exercise of 1-10 min –GI distress

19. Performance After Bicarbonate Loading Costill et al., Int J Sports Med, 1984

20. High-Intensity Exercise Effects on Muscle Metabolites force lactate PCr ATP

21. Creatine Supplementation  Creatine important for energy production during power/speed events  Effects of supplementation on performance –no benefit to single-bout exercise –diminishes fatigue during multiple-bout exercise  Allows for increased training volume

22. PCr Resynthesis Following Electrical Stimulation * Greenhaff et al., 1994 *P <.05

23. Endurance Training Adaptations   VO 2max (~15%)   cardiac output (~15%)   mitochondrial volume (2X)  La threshold shifted to right   ability to use fats (spares glycogen)

24. Increasing O 2 Delivery  blood doping –  RBC and blood volume –  submax pH –  La, HR  breathing 100% O 2  EPO –stimulates RBC production  altitude training –live high, train low ACSM Position Stand, The use of blood doping as an ergogenic aid. MSSE, 28:i-viii, 1996.

25. Effect of Blood Doping on VO 2max and Fatigue

26. Performance After Blood Doping

27. Performance After Inhalation of 100% O 2

28. What limits endurance performance? Pyruvate- malate oxidase Palmitoyl carnitine oxidase VO 2max Maximal endurance Cytochrome oxidase.95.93.74.92 Pyrave-malate oxidase.89.68.89 Palmitoyl carnitine oxidase.71.91 VO 2max.70 Davies et al., 1981, 1982

29. What limits endurance performance? Recovery in rats restored to normal iron- intake diet. Davies et al., AJP, 1982

30. Relationship between muscle VO 2 and mitochondrial PO 2 in heart. Muscle intracellular PO 2 and net lactate release. Note that PO 2 does not fall below critical mitochondrial O 2 tension and that lactate is formed under fully aerobic conditions at all intensities. Richardson et al., JAP, 1998

31. Increasing Energy Supply  Carbohydrate availability –feeding before/during competition –enhancing fat use  Creatine –important for energy production during power/speed events Glucose

32. Increasing Fat Utilization   FA availability will  fat oxidation  Caffeine –  lipolysis? –  EPI release? –blocks adenosine receptors –inhibits phosphodiesterase  Ephedrine –ß-receptor agonist

33. Increasing Fat Availability  Caffeine –  fat availability and  carbohydrate use? –spares carbohydrate stores? –  threshold for motor unit recruitment –altered E-C coupling –facilitated nerve transmission –  ion transport w/in muscle –  catecholamine release  Other nutritional products

34. Carbohydrate Feeding During Exercise Ivy et al., MSSE, 1979

35. Effect of Diet on Carbohydrate Storage and Exercise Duration

36. Effect of Diet on Muscle Carbohydrate Storage Costill & Miller, IJSM, 1979

37. Other Banned Substances  Stimulants – reduces tiredness –ephedrine, cocaine, amphetamines  Painkillers –narcotics  Diuretics –rapid weight loss –masks steroid use

38. Dehydration and Performance Saltin & Costill, 1988

39. Ergogenic Aids for Improving Athletic Performance Summary  Use of banned substances is widespread at international level  Detecting banned substances doesn’t keep up with continual modification of banned drugs  Many claims of OTC substances as ergogenic aids based on diseased population  Future of performance enhancement will be alternation of genetic coding

40. If you were to design a new ergogenic aid for a(n),  endurance athlete  speed athlete  power athlete what physiological mechanism(s) would be affected that result in better performances?