1. POLS 373 Foundations of Comparative Politics Lecture: Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Lecture Date: April 17, 2007

2. 2 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics  To start off our discussion of theory, we will begin with an exercise: Consider the following statements (arguments) about violent crime …

3. 3 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics ““Theories” about gun violence: argument no. 1 A major source of violent crime lies in predictable human behavior. In places where the risks of getting caught are minimal where the potential rewards are high, individuals are likely to commit more crimes in general. This is especially true in poorer communities, where people may have limited access to jobs, education and skills training. Violent crime specifically is more likely (1) when the use of violence is a particularly efficient and/or neces- sary “tool,” and (2) where the use of violence to achieve one’s ends entails relatively limited risk compared to the alternatives. Picture: Two unidentified members of the Mara Salvatrucha, or MS-13, show their tattoos in front of a message that says "we ask the Honduran people for forgiveness," in a unit of the National Penitentiary in Tamara, Honduras, 19 miles north of the capital Tegucigalp

4. 4 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics ““Theories” about gun violence: argument no. 2 Capitalism causes violence. Not directly, but through a unrelenting process that divides societies into the “haves” and “have-nots” and that glorifies competition and efficiency, while reducing individuals to abstractions. In this way, capitalism alienates people from each other, their families, and their communities, thus setting the stage for anti-social, increasingly violent behavior among ordinary people, against ordinary people. Violence is a response to the “soulessness” and hopelessness engendered by an inherently exploitative economic system. Of course, violence is not unique to capitalism, nor are all capitalist societies equally violent. Where the most destructive, alienating, and exploitative aspects of the capitalist process are mitigated, intra-societal violence is lessened. But where the forces of capitalism are unleashed and where vast segments of society are left unprotected, violence thrives.

5. 5 ““Theories” about gun violence: argument no. 3 People and societies are responsible for their own actions and decisions, but they do not exist or act in a social vacuum. Their behavior, in other words, is profoundly influenced by the “environment” in which they live. This environment, which we might call “culture,” may encourage certain practices and values that encourage criminally violent behavior among certain groups of people. More specifically, in some places, a “culture of violence” has been created. In this “culture of violence,” members of the community learn to resolve or address problems and conflicts primarily through the use violence. Violence, in other words, becomes a dominant and largely accepted norm within the community. Importantly, cultures of violence are not “born,” but created. Over time, however, violent cultural practices become deeply embedded within a community, taking on a life of their own. When this happens, the culture itself becomes an explanation for behavior. One can argue that a culture of violence, albeit not one of “gun violence” per se, existed in the era of Jim Crow in the American south. Repugnant violence, particularly in the form of public lynchings, were an accepted norm, viewed as “entertainment” by many southern whites.

6. 6 Summary of “Theories” on Gun Violence  Argument 1: A major source of violent crime lies in predictable human behavior  Argument 2: Capitalism causes violence  Argument 3: Crime reflects a “culture of violence” Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics

7. 7 Theory in Comparative Politics Key points:  Each of the three “theories” represent different research traditions common in comparative politics  Each of the three “theories” are marked by significant differences  One important difference relates to a level of analysis:  Micro-level  Meso-level  Macro-level Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics

8. 8 Theory in Comparative Politics: Levels of Analysis  Micro-level Looks for an explanation of behavior within or at the level of the individual: e.g., psychological explanations of Manson’s violent, sociopathic personality are micro-level  Meso-level Looks beyond the individual to broader environmental conditions: e.g., some cultures encourage, reward, and even compel members of the culture to behave violently; others, such as the Amish community, teach their members to abhor all forms of violence (only one Amish man has ever been convicted of murder) only one Amish man has ever been convicted of murderonly one Amish man has ever been convicted of murder  Macro-level Looks at the “biggest” forces that shape, not just individual behavior, but whole societies; assumes that all human action is both constrained and enabled by factors beyond our individual control: Marxists believe that capitalism is an all-encompassing social system that profoundly shapes our behavior Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics The Amish: A culture of peace and non-violence? To Marxists, the global system of neo-liberal capitalism is an overarching force shaping the entire world

9. 9 Theory in Comparative Politics  Another way to classify the statements is in terms of the three research traditions discussed in chapter three: Theory 1: fits into a ___________________ framework Theory 2: fits into a ___________________ framework Theory 3: fits into a ___________________ framework Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics cultural rational choice structural

10. 10 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Theory in Comparative Politics  Which approach best reflects your current understanding of gun violence (or criminal violence more generally)? Are a rationalist, a structuralist, or a culturalist? Which “hat” do you already wear?

11. 11 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Theory in Comparative Politics  What is theory? What is meant by the term “theorizing?

12. 12 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Theory in Comparative Politics  When we theorize, we are … 1.making judgments about what it and is not relevant or important in terms of explaining some significant economic, social or political phenomenon 2.identifying a specific level of analysis and making assumptions about power, structure, and agency 3.connecting certain facts with specific outcomes

13. 13 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Theory in Comparative Politics  A basic definition of theory: A theory is a kind of simplifying device that allows you to decide which facts matter and which do not

14. 14 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Theory in Comparative Politics  Theory as a simplifying device: an example Theory = (Conceptual) Filter

15. 15 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Another Useful Metaphor: Theory as a Photographic Lens

16. 16 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Theory as a Photographic Lens Basic lesson: Different “lenses” (re theories) serve different purposes; this may help explain why, in the social sciences, there are multiple, often competing theories

17. 17 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Multiple Theories  The existence of multiple theories raises some questions … Are all theories equally valid? Are different theories—even personal ones—all equally good? NO!

18. 18 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Some Problems in “Bad Theories” and Theorizing Many people … … theorize in an extremely superficial or arbitrary manner; jump to conclusions; ignore or dismiss “facts” that don’t fit into their understanding of the world; fail to acknowledge logical contradictions; confuse “observation” or correlation with causation; never (ever) think about the assumptions upon which their views are based; or regard their theories or theorizing about the world as self-evidently true

19. 19 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Some Problems in “Bad Theories” and Theorizing  The basic problem can be summed up simply: Many people operate on a modified version of Descartes’ famous dictum (“I think therefore I am”), by asserting … I think, therefore I’m right

20. 20 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics An amended definition of theory Theory is a simplified representation of reality and a framework within which facts are not only selected, but also interpreted, organized, and fit together so that they create a coherent whole

21. 21 Introduction to Theory in Comparative Politics Key Points in Amended Definition  Theory necessarily simplifies reality, but is not separate from reality  Theory helps us to determine what facts are important, meaningful, relevant  Theory guides our interpretation of the “facts” (What do the facts “mean”?)  Theory tells us how to organize the facts--how do different facts relate to one another? Which are primary?  Theory allows us to develop “whole” arguments