1. Means-end analysis
Reducing differences between current state and goal state
Stop when difference is 0 (no difference)
Subgoals
Intermediate goals – not your final goal-state
Means-end analysis is also considered a way to break up a problem into pieces (subgoals)

2. Mate example Goal-state = ideal mate
Subgoal = utilize a dating service
Establish a further subgoal
Locate dating services
Then, next subgoal = sign up or register

3. analogy Borrowing a solution already used to solve a similar problem
Example problem
Patient has a tumor in location that makes it inoperable
One possibility is to use a high-powered beam to destroy the tumor from the outside
Problem: beam will also damage surrounding healthy tissue

4. Similar problem Evil king lives in a castle with his army
Good king wants to destroy the evil king
Good king amasses a huge army to defeat the evil king
Problem: only narrow roads bordered by natural (immovable) obstacles lead to evil king’s castle; no single road can hold the entire good king’s army

5. Solution to castle problem
Good king divides the army into smaller divisions
Each division goes down a separate road at the same time
All divisions meet at the castle simultaneously to overtake the evil king and his army

6. Solution to tumor problem
Divide beam into weaker beams
Send all weak beams into body simultaneously but from different angles
Combined strength of beams at tumor site will destory tumor

7. Problems analogous to finding ideal mate
Maybe finding perfect job
Networking, Internships, Improve job skills
Maybe finding a great car
Shop around, read reviews, research
Maybe choosing a major
Career guidance (seek guidance), model it after someone in career you like, pick a major you love

8. General problem-solving strategies
i.e., heuristics (backward search, trial-and-error, means-end analysis, analogy)
New example problem
ANAGRAM
T E S C E L  SELECT
Algorithm : list every possible combination of letters
Takes too long to use algorithm & hard 2 track

9. Another anagram Another example Z I M O U G D E N  DOMINGUEZ
To solve, we use heuristics (strategies)
E.g., word doesn’t start with a Z

10. Problem-solving phenomena
Insight
Sudden awareness of a solution to a problem
Experimental demonstration
Give hard problems; allow people to think about them
People report how close they are to the answer as they solve the problem (1-10)
Some problems people show no knowledge (score =1) until suddenly getting answer

11. Incubation Incubation Unconscious problem-solving Fresh perspective
Stop solving problem for a while; when you begin again, you’ve made extra progress
Unconscious problem-solving
One theory of incubation  we continue to work on problem unconscioulsy
Fresh perspective
Other theory; taking a break allows a fresh perspective on the problem

12. More on incubation
Extremely difficult and rare to demonstrate incubation in a laboratory setting

13. Functional fixedness
Stuck when solving a problem because you cannot see a new or alternative way to use an object or tool
Refer to page 356
Duncker’s candle problem