1. The Map as a Model of Geographic Data
The Language of Spatial Thinking
Fundamentals of GIS
Michael N. DEMERS
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Necla ULUGTEKIN

2. Spatial thinking requires us to be able to select observe measure catalogue characterise what we encounter.

3. Data are collected in the field  basic (absolute) data
remote sensing  basic (absolute) data
existing maps  derived data
catalogues  derived data
...

4. Scanning

5. The Digitizing Tablet

6. Existing maps into the GIS Different level of generalisation
Different level of scales
Different projections
Different symbolisation
Before GIS project we will be able to identify potential problems for editing such problems.
Now, we will learn how spatial features and their relationships can be shown in a form (which is map) that allows us to view these relationships more easily and, therefore how we can begin to formulate methods of analysis.

7. Cartography is the art, science and technology of making maps together with their study as scientific documents and works of art. (1973, ICA)

8. Cartography is the organisation, presentation, communication and utilisation of geo-information in graphic, digital or tactile form. (ICA, 1991)
It can include all stages from data presentation to end use in the creation of maps and related spatial information products.
A knowledge about cartographic methods will increase a portion of our spatial vocabulary that we have called graphicacy.

9. Map an abstraction of reality, it is not reality itself.
the fundamental language of geography.
symbolise image of geographical reality
representing selected feature
representing feature relationships
representing characteristics
Spatial data abstraction
All these symbolised images: it could not possible be drawn of such a small peace of paper.

10. Maps can be used Navigation Exploration Discovery
Interactive computer navigation
Education
Forecasting …

11. Primary Types of Maps Topographic Map (General Reference) Thematic Map
Reference Maps are used as input to a GIS and then thematic information can be added.

12. GIS works together
geology
surveying
soil science
other disciplines...

13. GIS is used in these disciplines, in addition to
Geological maps
Topographic maps
Cadastral Maps
Soil Maps

14. The thematic context of GIS includes
Vegetation maps
Transportation maps
Animal distribution maps
Utility maps
Urban plans
Zoning maps
...
land use maps
land cover
remotely sensed images
urbanisation
air pollution
animated maps
temporal maps

15. GIS is
hardware
software
people (organisation)
data

16. GIS is about data integration spatial analysis
link with application based models

17. The traditional approach to mapping called the communication paradigm
The map was a final product designed to communicate a spatial pattern through the use of symbols, class limit selection and so on.
The traditional method was limited because raw, pre-classified data are not readily available to the map user

18. Communication Paradigm
Real World
Cartographer
Conception
Map
Map User
Conceptions
In other words, the users have only final product, is incapable of regrouping the data into forms more useful for changing circumstances and needs.

19. The alternative approach to cartography which is computer technology called the analytical or holistic paradigm
Maintains the raw attribute data inside a computer storage device and display data based on user needs and user classifications
The use of computer technology for map making should allow for both communication and analysis.

20. Map Scale
Scale is the ratio of distance on the map to the same distance as appears on the earth
Methods of illustrating map scale
verbal scale 1mm = 1000 mm
representation fraction 1:1000
graphic or bar scale
1:1000  1:5000  1:  1:25 000
It is always better to reduce a map after analysis than to enlarge it for analysis.

21. Generalisation Every map is, in principle, generalised. Why?
increasing density of the map contents due to scale reduction
limit of sharpness of the eye, printing capabilities
minimum size of symbols on map
the choice of degree of generalisation depends on aim and scale of the map.
Omitting (elimination)
selection
simplification (smoothing)
repressing and exaggerating
emphasising
displaying

22. 1 : 5 000
1:25 000
1:50 000

23. Map Characteristics
Maps as images of the world, represent the locations of objects, as well as their qualities or magnitudes.
Objects are represented as points, line, areas or surfaces in the computer memory as like in the reality.

24. Objects
Parcel area (value)
Parcel owner (text)
photo

25. Levels of data measurements
qualitative or nominal level
ordered or ordinal level
quantitative or interval level
Information about different nature / identity of things. E.g. forest house.
Information with a clear element of order, not quantitatively determined.
Hamlet, village, town, city, conurbation.
Information about specified amounts, e.g. number of inhabitants, employees, students.

26. GRID SYSTEMS for MAPPING
Geographical Coordinates based on latitude and longitude for the locating of objects or features on the spherical (elipsoidal) earth or its reference globe.
Rectangular Coordinates or Plane Coordinates allows us to locate objects correctly on these flat maps.

27. elevation
Sea level

28. Geographical Coordinates
meridian
Prime meridian
Parallel
Equator
Prime meridian

29. Map Projection
The three-dimensional geographic relationships of the Earth surface must be transformed to the two-dimensional plane of the map by any of several procedures called map projections.
Division of map projections according to their properties
conform projections
equivalent (Equal-Area) projections
equidistant projection
others
Angles measured on the earth equal to those on the map.
Equality of surface area. Preserve areas
Distances measured on meridian from one point to other point are correct or scale factor equal to 1. The distance measurements from any other point on the map will be inaccurate.

30. cylindrical projections conic projections azimuthal projections
Division of map projections according to their construction
cylindrical projections
conic projections
azimuthal projections
Division of map projections according to their aspect
Polar (regular)
Equatorial (transversal)
oblique
The selection of map projection is fundamental process of designing a GIS

31. Projection surfaces
a tangent conic (cylindirical or azimuthal) projection
with one standard parallel
Perspective projection ! Pseudo Projections

32. a secant conic projection with two standard parallels

33. Position of the (earth) rotation axis to surface normal
polar or regular I
equatorial or transverse ___
oblique /

34. preserve the property of local shape
conformed projections

35. Perspective projection !

37. preserves distances but only along one or a few lines equidistant projections the azimuthal equidistant projections

38. preserve the property of area equal area or equivalent projections

39. miscellaneous projections (pseudo ! )

40. Robinson Projection

41. Winkel Tripel Projeksiyonu

42. MARS
Winkel Tripel Projeksiyonu

43. Arabian Island & Greenland
a: original
b: equal area projection
c: conform projection

44. UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) C.S.
North
northern hemisphere
Central meridian for zone
m E
Equator (0m N, m S)
southern hemisphere
South .
1800W-1800E (60of longitude wide- 60 gores (zone))
800S - 840N (80of latitude wide - 20 latitudinal belts)
? Prime meridian

46. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION (UTM)
cylindrical, equatorial, conform projection
the area is covered by 80° South - 84° North latitude
the earth is divided into 60 zones (each 6° longitude)
180° West Longitude - 0° - 180° East Longitude
20 latitudinal belts (each 8° latitude)
scale factor =
origin shifted m to east (false easting)
origin shifted m to south for the southern hemisphere
the Hayford ellipsoid, the ED50 datum
For polar regions we use a Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) grid or projection.

47. The Cartographic Process
data collection (first step of GIS)
data compilation (classification and symbolism)
map production
map reproduction (output of GIS)
data collection (first step of GIS)
data compilation (classification and symbolism)development of base map
map production
map reproduction quantity of reproduction
quality of reproduction
color (photo-offset)

49. Map symbolism According to their dimensional characteristics
point symbol (location and identity)
line symbol (linear characteristics)
area symbol (provinces, countries, soil units)

50. Map symbolism
According to their shape cartographic symbol grouped in three main categories
pictorial or descriptive symbols
geometric or abstract symbols
letter or number symbols
other symbols (pie graph, bar graph etc.)

51. Symbols visual variables shape size boyut orientation value texture
color
value

52. Color for map design
hue
intensity/value
saturation

53. dot map is a proportional changing in data
Thematic Maps
dot map is a proportional changing in data
choropleth map (value-by-area mapping)
statistical mapping
class interval selection
equal class or constant interval methods
variable intervals - arithmetic, logarithmic, other mathematical series, unsystematic … (contour line on a topographic map class interval selection for choropleth maps.)

56. Electronic Atlas Project ITU-1185

57. The Nature of Spatial Data
model construction and geographic object selection (surveying, photogrammetry, remote sensing, recycling old maps, statistical surveys)
select and construct cartographic representation (road map, topographic map, ...)
medium output (paper map or on-screen map)
Cartographic database are collected from existing map rather than from field work or remotely sensed data , and they transferred to the computerised database.
Geographic database is collected from a survey instrument.
The nature of spatial data: from reality, via model construction and selection to a digital landscape model, followed by selection and construction to a cartographic representation towards a digital cartographic model, presented as a map, which result in the user’s mental map.

58. reality digital landscape model digital cartographic model map
reality digital landscape model digital cartographic model map mental map (reality????)

60. What we learnt new perspective (map, scale, communication, ...)
new concepts (cartography, generalisation, projection, ...)
and
What we know? “new people”
...