1. Statistics of Fermions = Spin ½ Particles (electron, neutron, proton…) obeying the famous Pauli Exclusion Principle no two identical particles can exist in the same state identical = same spin, electric, lepton, & color charges, angular momentum, momentum, energy…

2. Virtual Particles Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle for energy (mass) & time …allows production of matter-antimatter particle pairs …as long as pairs annihilate in a very short period of time Δt < ћ /E E=2m e c 2 for electron/positron bubbles

3. Vacuum Energy “empty” space (the vacuum) is anything but empty full of virtual particle pairs popping in and out of existence the combined energy of all possible pairs is called the vacuum energy