1. Providence University College of Management I NTRODUCTION - Reviewing Previous Research - Advancing to Present Research Wu-Lin Chen (wlchen@pu.edu.tw) Department of Computer Science and Information Management

2. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 2 Review the Setting Using Microcomputers in Teaching –During the past 40 years, the United States has experienced the integration of the computer into society. Progress has been made to the point that small, inexpensive computers with expanded capabilities are available for innumerable uses. Many schools have purchased and are purchasing microcomputers for infusion into their directed learning programs.

3. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 3 Finishing Up Writing Introduction Stage II (already studied) –More specific statements about the aspect of the problem already studied by other researchers Stage III (investigation needed) –Statement(s) that indicate the need for more investigation Stage IV (purpose) –Very specific statement(s) giving the purpose/objectives of the writer’s study Stage V (value) –Optional statement(s) that give a value or justification for carrying out the study

4. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 4 Stage II Review of Literature Continue giving your readers background information needed to understand your research Familiarizing your readers with the important research that has been carried out in your area Establishing your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field

5. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 5 Citation Three ways to cite previous research –Information prominent citation (author’s names) –Information prominent citation (reference number) –Author prominent citation

6. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 6 Information Prominent Citation (Author’s Names) In most deserts of the world, transitions between topographic elements are abrupt (Smith 1968). Information + Reference

7. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 7 Information Prominent Citation (Reference Number) In most deserts of the world, transitions between topographic elements are abrupt (1,2,8,9). Information + Reference number

8. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 8 Author Prominent Citation Leopold (1921) listed foods, but gave no quantitative data. Allen and Reiner [1] described graphically the differences between the various vibration scales. Last name of author + Date or reference number + Information

9. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 9 Order of Citations From most distantly related to your study to those most closely related In chronological order –If you are describing the history of research in an area According to different approaches –If you are dealing with a large amount of citations as in a thesis or dissertation –Each group can be ordered chronologically or from general to specific

10. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 10 Order of Citations Citations grouped by approach One approach Another approach Still another approach + + Citations ordered from distant to close Citations ordered chronologically earliest latest OR

11. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 11 Citation Focus and Verb Tense When you decide using information or author prominent citations, you also determine the verb tense you will use in each citation

12. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 12 Tense in Information Prominent Citations The present tense is used when the information you are citing is generally accepted as a scientific fact For example: Reporting Facts Topic Verb (present) Fact(Reference) + ++ Nutrient resorption is a common phenomenon in forest trees (Kramer 1979). The factors that control the concentration of aluminum in seawater arepoorly known[1].

13. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 13 Tense in Weak Author Prominent Citations The present perfect tense is used in citations where the focus is on research area of several authors For example: Several Authors I Authors Verb (present perfect) Topic(Reference) +++ Several researchers the relationship between classroom adjustment and mobility (Madsen 1980; Biggs 1983; Randall 1985) have studied

14. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 14 Tense in Weak Author Prominent Citations For example: Several Authors II Topic Verb (present perfect) Author(Reference) +++ The physiology of annual plants by several authorshas been studied [3,7,13].

15. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 15 General Statements about the Research The present perfect tense is also used in general statements that describes the level of research activity in an area. These statements are often written without reference For example: Level of Research Activity Level Verb (present perfect) Topic ++ Little research on topic development on ESL students’ composition. has been done

16. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 16 Tense in Author Prominent Citations The simple past tense is used if you use author prominent citations to report the finding of individual studies closely related to your own For example: Finding from Specific Studies AuthorsTHATFindings +++ Allington found showed reported noted observed (1983) Reference Verb (past) + that teachers allocated equal time to all groups.

17. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 17 Progression of Literature Review Citation from Beginning citations: Information prominent Weak author prominent General statements Latest citations: Author prominent Tense Simple present and present perfect Simple past

18. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 18 Attitude and Tense in Research Findings In author prominent citations your attitude towards the findings of the researchers also affects the complement verb forms. –When you believe the findings you are citing are fact, use the present tense in the complement verb. –When you believe the findings are restricted to the specific study you are citing, use the past tense in the complement verb. –When the finding you are citing were seen by the original authors as tentative, or were only suggestions or proposals rather than findings, use tentative verbs for the verb of report, and a modal auxiliary with the complement verb.

19. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 19 Attitude Towards Findings: Accepted as a Fact AuthorTHAT Findings (present) +++ Sillen showed [1] Reference number or date Verb of report + that Aluminum in seawater is regulated by a thermodynamic balance.

20. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 20 Attitude Towards Findings: Results Limited to One Study Author (s) Findings (past) ++ Reference number or date Verb of report + Abramsonreported(1974) that mobile students had lower academic performance. Henderson and Harris found[7] that 34.6kg of nitrogen were cycled internally by trees.

21. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 21 Attitude Towards Findings: Tentative Findings Van Bennekom proposed suggested hypothesized [5] AuthorTHAT Tentative findings (modal auxiliary + verb) +++ Reference number or date Verb of report + that aluminum may be common in diatom residues.

22. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 22 Advancing to Present Research Stages III, IV, and V of the introduction focus your readers’ attention on the specific research problem Stage III indicates an area that is not treated in the previous literature Stage IV announces the purpose of your research Stage V indicates possible benefits or application of your work

23. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 23 Writing Stage III: Missing Information Summing up previous literature review by pointing out a gap Pointing out this gap is an important research area that is not investigated by other researchers Accomplishing Stage III in only one or two sentence

24. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 24 Alternatives For Stage III You may indicate that the previous literature described in Stage II is inadequate because an important aspect of the research area has been ignored by other authors. You may indicate that there is an unresolved conflict among the authors of previous studies concerning the research topic. This may be a theoretical or methodological disagreement. You may indicate that an examination of the previous literature suggests an extension of the topic, or raises a new research question not previously considered by other researchers in your field.

25. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 25 Stage III: Missing Information Gap Research topic + However, the effects of computer assisted instruction. few studies have reported on But, the air flow rates on simple flat plate solar collectors. there is little information available on

26. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 26 Stage III: Signal Words Signal words are used for helping transition from Stage II to Stage III. The connector (signal word) is followed immediately by a gap statement in the present or present perfect tense, which often contains modifiers such as few, little, or no.

27. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 27 Stage III: Signaling Missing Information Gap (present or present perfect tense) Research topic + However, But the effects of air flow rates on simple flat plate solar collectors. few studies have been done on little literature is available on very little is known about no work has been done on Signal word +

28. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 28 Stage III: Signaling Missing Information Previous work (present or present perfect tense) Gap + Topic + Although While little information is available on Y. some literature is available on X, many studies have been done on X, much research has been devoted to X, Signal word + X = Previous work Y = Research topic

29. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 29 Writing Stage IV: The Statement of Purpose State as concisely as possible the specific objective(s) of your research report The statement of purpose answers the need expressed in Stage III for additional research in your area of study

30. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 30 Statement of Purpose The orientation of the statement of purpose may be –towards the report itself –towards the research activity

31. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 31 Statement of Purpose: Report Orientation Report orientation Research question + is to determine whether an automatic measurement system can be applied to educational settings. The purpose of this thesis The aim of the present paper The objective of this report

32. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 32 Statement of Purpose: Research Orientation Report orientation Research question + was to determine whether or not genetic differences in germination exist at low temperatures in pepper species. The purpose ofthis study this investigation this research the research reported here

33. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 33 Stage IV: Orientation and Tense If you choose the research orientation you should use the past tense, because the research activity has already been done. If you choose to use the report orientation, use the present or future tense.

34. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 34 Stage IV: Verb Tenses Research Orientation Main verb (past) Research question + The purpose of this study to investigate the effect of computer-assisted instruction on the computer literacy of fifth grade children. was Research orientation +

35. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 35 Stage IV: Verb Tenses Report Orientation Main verb (present or future) Research question + This paper the results of surveys conducted in Honduras to determine the distribution of manatees in that country. describes presents Report orientation + This thesis the implementation and operation of an automatic measurement system appropriate for classroom and laboratory demonstrations. will deal with will discuss

36. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 36 Stage IV and Your Research Question Stage IV should be directly related to the research question upon which you based your study. The statement of purpose should be written so that your reader can infer the research question behind your study. If the implied research question is a yes or no question, the connecting words whether or if are used in Stage IV, and a modal auxiliary like would or could accompanies the verb.

37. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 37 Stage IV: Questions in the Statement of Purpose Yes or No Questions Research question Purpose (implied question) The purpose of this thesis is to determine if an automatic measurement system would be suitable for classroom and laboratory demonstration. Is an automatic measurement system suitable for classroom and laboratory demonstrations?

38. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 38 Stage IV: Questions in the Statement of Purpose Information Questions Research question Purpose (implied question) What is the distribution and status of manatees in Honduras? This paper reports the results of surveys and interviews conducted in order to determine the distribution and status of manatees on Honduras. This paper reports on the distribution and status of manatees in Honduras.

39. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 39 Writing Stage V: The Statement of Value Stage V is not included in every introduction. It should be included in your introduction when you write a thesis, dissertation, or a thesis proposal. It is also commonly included in research reports written to describe a project conducted with money from outside sources. It is often omitted in report written up as journal articles.

40. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 40 Points of View of the Statement of Value Practical orientation –This research may provide an alternative to the problem of manually demonstrating instrumentation principles in classroom environments. –The results of this study could be useful to educators responsible for planning course work in consumer education. Theoretical orientation –Both of the factors under investigation in this study may be of importance in explaining the irregular occurrence of this disease. –Results of this study may suggest a broader hypothesis for further research into the effects of atmospheric chemical on rubber.

41. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 41 Stage V – Modal Auxiliaries and Tentativeness Stage V is usually written in a way that suggests an attitude of tentativeness or modesty on the part of the author. You should not sound too sure of the benefits, either practical or theoretical, of your work. It is conventional to sound more cautions. Modal auxiliaries, principally may, are used for this purpose.

42. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 42 Stage V: Statement of Value Using Modal Auxiliaries Modal auxiliary Value + The application of the strategies described here increase the proportion of drug abusers who can be identified. may should Your research + The system described here serve as the basis for a study of automatic measurement systems in an instrumentation course. could This study lead to a better understanding of phosphorus in natural systems. may

43. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 43 Selecting the Best Modal Auxiliaries for Use in Stages IV Stage IV: no doubt about the future no doubt about the future, assuming certain conditions (SURE) WILL WOULD (TENTATIVE) Stage IV: The data contained in this report will supplement that presented in our earlier publication. The purpose of this study was to determine if the use of home computers would improve the math scores of third grade children.

44. Technical Writing S03 Providence University 44 Selecting the Best Modal Auxiliaries for Use in Stages V Stage V: reasonable expectation about the future some doubt about the future more doubt about the future (SURE) SHOULD COULD (TENTATIVE) Stage V: This alternative method should simplify the analysis procedure. Both of the factors studied here may be of importance in explaining the occurrence of this disease. Results of this study could have considerable impact on estimates of land values. MAY