1. Cancer
Chapter 16

2. Leading Causes of Cancer
Risk Factor
Tobacco
Diet and obesity
Sedentary lifestyle
Family history of cancer
Occupational factors
Viruses
Alcohol
Environmental pollution

3. What is Cancer?
Definition: an abnormal and uncontrollable growth of cells or tissue that can lead to death.
Tumor: a mass of tissue that serves no purpose.
Malignant tumor: (Neoplasm) cancerous, can invade surrounding tissues.
Benign tumor: mass of cells enclosed in a membrane that prevents their penetration of other tissues.
Cancer causes more than 550,000 deaths in the U.S. annually. While scientists struggle finding cures for various cancers, evidence indicates that more than half the cancers in the U.S. could be prevented by changes in lifestyle behaviors. Although cancer is primarily a disease of older adults, your actions now will determine your cancer risk in the future.
Cancer is the abnormal, uncontrolled growth of cells (which left untreated, can ultimately cause death).
Tumor – This is a mass of tissue that serves no physiological purpose. It can be benign or malignant.
Benign tumor – These tumors are made up of cells similar to the surrounding normal cells and are enclosed in a membrane that prevents them from penetrating neighboring tissues. They are dangerous only if their physical presence interferes with normal body functions.
Malignant tumor (also called a neoplasm) – is synonymous with cancer. Malignant tumors are capable of invading surrounding structures such as blood vessels (circulatory system), the lymphatic system, and nerves. It can also spread to distant sites via the blood and lymphatic circulation, thereby producing invasive tumors in almost any part of the body (see metastasis). Some cancers don’t produce a tissue mass, such as leukemia (cancer of the blood), but are considered cancer because they are characterized by rapid, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells. Cancer starts when a change in cell occurs for some reason and allows it to grow and divide when it shouldn’t. Normally (in adults), cells divide and grow at a rate just sufficient to replace dying cells. It takes about a billion cells to make a mass the size of a pea, so a single tumor cell must go through many divisions, often taking years, before the tumor grows to a noticeable size. Eventually a tumor produces a sign or symptom that is determined by its location in the body. For example, in the breast, a tumor may be felt as a lump and diagnoses as cancer by an X ray or a biopsy. In less accessible locations, like the lung, ovary, or intestine, a tumor may be noticed only after considerable growth has occurred and may then be detected only by an indirect symptom, such as a persistent cough,unexplained bleeding, or pain.

5. How Cancer Spreads Metastasis: Primary tumor
Definition: the spreading of cancer cells, occurs because cancer cells do not stick to each other as strongly as normal cells.
Cells break away from primary tumor and invade surrounding tissues or travel through the blood and lymphatic system.
Secondary tumor or metastases
Metastasis is the spread of cancer cells from one part of the body to another. This process occurs because cancer cells do not stick to each other as strongly as normal cells do and therefore, may not remain at the site of the primary tumor (the original location). When cancer cells travel and invade (seed) other tissues, they produce secondary tumors or metastaces. Traveling cancer cells can follow two courses. They can produce secondary tumors in the lymph nodes and be carried through the lymph system to secondary sites elsewhere, or they can invade blood vessels and circulate through the vessels to colonize other organs. This ability of cancer cells to metastasize makes early cancer detection critical. To control the cancer and prevent death, every cancerous cell must be removed. Once cancer cells enter either the lymphatic system or the bloodstream it is extremely difficult to stop their spread to other organs of the body. In fact, counting the number of lymph nodes that contain cancer cells is one of the principal methods of predicting the outcome of the disease. The probability of a cure is much greater when the lymph nodes do not contain cancer cells.

7. Types of Cancer Malignant Tumors
Classified according to the types of cells.
Initially retain some of the original properties of the host cell.
Carcinomas - most common - start from the epithelial tissue that cover body surfaces. Linings, tubes, cavities and secretion glands.
Types of cancer – The behaviors of tumors arising in different body organs show characteristics of their tissues of origin. Malignant tumors are classified according to the types of cells that give rise to them. See the next slide for more information.
Because each cancer begins as a single (altered) cell with a specific function in the body, the cancer will retain some of the properties of the normal cell for a time. Usually, however, cancer cells lose their resemblance to normal tissue as they continue to divide. Remember, malignant tumors are classified according to the cells from which they develop.
Carcinomas – These cancers rise from epithelial tissues that cover external body surfaces, line internal tubes and cavities, and form the secreting portion of glands. They are the most common type of cancers. Common sites include the skin, breast, uterus, prostate, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract.

8. Malignant Tumors
Sarcomas: arise in connective and fibrous tissues. Bone, muscle, cartilage and membranes covering muscle or fat.
Lymphomas: Cancers of the lymph nodes.
Leukemia: cancer of the blood-forming cells in bone marrow.
Sarcomas – These cancers arise from connective and fibrous tissues like muscle, bone, cartilage, and the membranes covering muscles and fat.
Lymphomas – These cancers develop in the lymph nodes, which are part of the body’s infection-fighting (immune) system.
Leukemias – These cancers develop in the blood-forming cells, which reside mainly in the bone marrow.
There is a great deal of variation in how easily different cancers can be treated and how well they respond to treatment. In general, it is very difficult for an oncologist (a doctor who specialized in tumors) to predict how a specific tumor will behave because every tumor arises from a unique set of changes in a single cell.

9. The Incidence of Cancer
1.3 million Americans are diagnosed yearly
More than half will be cued.
About 40% will die as a result of cancer.
1 in 2 men and 1 in 3 women will be develop cancer during their lifetime.
The type of cancer, diagnosis, and treatment vary greatly. For example: Certain types of skin cancer are easily detected, grow slowly, and are very easy to remove. In fact, over 1 million cases of skin cancer each year are cured.
Prior to 1991, cancer death (mortality) rates grew steadily largely due to a wave of lethal lung cancers among men caused by smoking (these men probably started smoking in the 1950’s or 1960’s; so, with the current rise in female smokers, expect the female death rate to grow disproportionately in 20 or 30 years from now, even though the overall rate may decrease). In 1991, the rates began to decrease slowly. This is a promising trend because it suggests that efforts at education, prevention, early detection, and improve treatments are all bearing fruit. Experts estimate that if these trends continue, we may see a decline in death rates of as much as 15-50% over the next 20 years.
Skins cancers could be prevented by simply protected the skin from the rays of the sun (this is discussed later).
Lung cancers could be prevented by avoiding exposure to tobacco smoke, both from direct cigarette smoking or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), also known as secondhand smoke.
Thousands of cases of colon, breast, and uterine cancers could be prevented by improving the diet and controlling body weight (this include more physical activity).
Regular screenings and self-examinations (types of secondary prevention) have the potential to save an additional 100,000 lives per year.
The major cancer sites and the incidence of each type are in the textbook.

11. Common Cancers Lung Cancer: Most common cancer. Risk Factors
Tobacco smoking contributes to 87%.
Combined with environmental carcinogens multiply by 10.
Detection and Treatment (Difficult to detect)
Symptoms are not detected until cancer has reached the invasive stage.
Persistent cough, chest pain, or recurring bronchitis.
Diagnosis - chest x-ray or sputum examination - fiber-optic bronchosectomy.
Lung cancer – Lung cancer kills more people than any other type of cancer. Tobacco smoke is the primary cause.
Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer death in the U.S. It is responsible for about 157,000 death each year. For over 40 years, breast cancer was the major cause of cancer death in women, but since 1987, lung cancer has surpassed breast cancer as the major killer of women.
Risk factors – The major risk factor for lung cancer is tobacco smoke, which account for 87% of cancers. When smoking is combined with exposure to other environmental carcinogens, the risk factor of cancer can be multiplied by a factor of 10 or more. The smoker is not the only one at risk. In 1993, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classified environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) as a human carcinogen. Long-term exposure to ETS increase risk for lung cancer. Sidestream (secondhand) smoke has significantly higher concentrations of toxins and carcinogens than found in mainstream smoke (because it’s filtered by the smoker’s lungs and the cigarette filter). It is estimated that ETS causes about 3000 lung cancer deaths each year.

12. Common Cancers Lung Cancer treatment: Difficult to treat.
Surgery- removal of involved cells.
Typically- cancer cells have already spread.
Very resistant to chemotherapy.
Detection and treatment – Lung cancer is difficult to detect an an early stage and hard to cure even when detected early. Symptoms of lung cancer do not usually appear until the disease has advanced to the invasive stage. Signals such as a persistent cough, chest pain, or recurring bronchitis may be the first indication of a tumor’s presence. Spiral CT scanning has been shown to be able to detect lung cancer much earlier than X rays, but this screening option is much more expensive and usually not covered by insurance. A diagnosis can usually be made by a chest X ray or by studying the cells in sputum. Almost all lung cancers arise from the cells that line the bronchi, so tumors can sometimes be visualized by a fiber-optic bronchoscopy. Treatment for lung cancer depends on its type and stage. If caught early, localized cancer can be treated with surgery. However, only about 15% lung cancer cases are diagnosed before it has spread. Radiation and chemotherapy are used in addition to surgery in most cases. For cases detected early, 49% of patients are alive 5 years after diagnosis; but overall, the survival rate is only 14%.

13. Common Cancers Colon and Rectal- second most prevalent cancer.
Risk Factors
Directly linked to diet and genetic predisposition.
Mostly occurs after 50 yr. of age.Diet low in fat and High in fiber - best defense.
Up to 1/3 of the population is genetically prone.
Detection and Treatment
Colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of cancer death for Americans.
Risk factors – Age is a key risk factor for colon and rectal cancer with more than 90% of cases diagnosed in people age 50 and older. Heredity also play a role. Many cancers arise from preexisting polyps, which are small growths on the wall of the colon that may gradually develop into malignancies. The tendency to form colon polyps appears to be determined by specific genes, and 15-30% of colon cancers may be due to inherited gene mutations. Chronic inflammation of the colon as a result of disorders such as ulcerative colitis also increase the risk of colon cancer. Lifestyle is also a risk factor for colorectal cancer. Regular physical activity appears to reduce a person’s risk. A diet rich in red meat is thought to increase risk, although it is unclear whether fat or some other component of meat is the cause. A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains is associated with lower risk. More research is needed to determine whether a diet high in fiber reduces risk, but it is recommended anyway because of its known protective qualities for other chronic diseases, such as heart disease, hypertension, and diabetes. Excessive alcohol consumption and smoking are other lifestyle factors that increase risk. It appears that postmenopausal hormone replacement and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin and ibuprofen may reduce risk for developing colon cancers and other digestive tract cancers.
Detection and treatment – If detected early, precancerous polyps and early-stage cancers can be remove before they become malignant or metastasize. Because polyps may bleed as they progress, the standard warning signs of colon cancer are bleeding from the rectum or a change in bowel habits. Regular screening tests are recommended beginning at age 50 (earlier for people with a family history of colorectal cancer). A stool blood test, performed every year, can detect small amount of blood in the stool long before it become obvious. More involved screenings are recommended at 5- or 10- year intervals. In sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy, a flexible fiber-optic device is inserted through the rectum, which allows the colon to be examined visually. Surgery is the primary treatment for colon and rectal cancer. Radiation and chemotherapy may be used before surgery to shrink a tumor or after surgery to destroy remaining cancerous cells. The survival rate is 90% for colon and rectal cancer if detected early and 65% overall.

14. Common Cancers
Breast Cancer - Second most common cancer in women; 1:9 American women will have it during her lifetime.
Risk Factors
Most common in women over 50
5 year survival rate is 79%
“Disease of Civilization”
Common causes: Genetic predisposition; High fat, High calorie diet and Sedentary lifestyle, Alcohol use, early onset of menstruation, First child after 30 and obesity
Estrogen -cancer in estrogen-responsive sites
Detection and Treatment
Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women and causes almost as many deaths in women as lung cancer. In men, breast cancer occurs only rarely. In the U.S., about 1 out of 9 women will develop breast cancer during her lifetime. The incidence of breast cancer increased during the 1980’s, but now appears to have leveled off. Each year, about 183,000 American women are diagnosed with breast cancer. Although mortality rates declined in the early 1990’s, about 41,000 women die from breast cancer each year. Less than 15 of breast cancer cases occur in women under age 30, but a woman’s risk doubles every 5 years between the ages of 30 and 45 and the increase more slowly by 10-15% every 5 years after age 45. More than 75% of breast cancers are diagnosed in women over 50.
Risk factors – There is a strong genetic factor in breast cancer. A woman who has two close relatives with breast cancer is four to six times more likely to develop the disease than a woman who has no close relatives with it. However, even though genetic factors are important, only about 15% of cancers occur in women with a family history of breast cancer (about 5-10% of breast cancers can be traced to a specific inherited gene called BCCA1-breast cancer gene 1). Other risk factors include early onset of menstruation, late onset of menopause, having no children or having a first child after age 30, current use of hormone replacement therapy, obesity, and alcohol use. A link to estrogen has been determined but scientists are unsure of the mechanisms at work. Breast cancer has been called a “disease of civilization” because incidence is high in industrialized Western countries, but remains low in developing non-Western countries. Differences in diet and exercise habits have been proposed, but the connections are still being investigated. For example, polyunsaturated fats may increase a woman’s risk, while monounsaturated fats may decrease her risk. Regular exercise has been shown to significantly reduce a woman risk breast cancer. Although some risk factors for breast cancer can not be changed – such as heredity and some hormonal factors – others, such as lifestyle factors can be very important keys in preventing it.

15. Common Cancers Breast Cancer -.
Three part program for early detection.
Monthly breast self-exam for all women over 20.
Clinical breast exam by a physician every 3 yr.
Mammography- Every 1-2 years yr. old.
Over 50 every year.
New Strategies for Treatment and Prevention
Early detection – A cure is most likely if breast cancer is detected early, so regular screening is a good investment, even for younger women. See the next slide for ACS recommendations
Treatment – If a lump is detected, it may be scanned by ultrasonography and biopsied to assess if it is cancerous. The biopsy may be done either by needle in the physician’s office or surgically. In 90% of cases, the lump is found to be a cyst or other harmless growth, and no further treatment is needed. If the lump does contain cancer cells, a variety of surgeries may be called for ranging from a lumpectomy (removal of the lump and surrounding tissue) to a mastectomy (removal of the entire breast). To determine whether the cancer has spread, lymph nodes from the armpit are removed and examined. If cancer cells are found, tumor cells remaining in the body can often be slowed or killed by additional therapy, such as radiation, chemotherapy, or both. The chance of survival in cases of breast cancer varies, depending both on the nature of the tumor and whether it has metastasized. If the tumor is found early, before it has spread to the adjacent lymph nodes, a patient has a 97% chance of surviving more than 5 years. Survival rate for all stages is 85% at 5 years, 71 % at 10 years, and 57% at 15 years.
New strategies for treatment and prevention – A number of new drugs have recently been developed for the treatment or prevention of breast cancer. A family of drugs called selective estrogen-receptor modulators, or SERMs, act like estrogen in some tissues of the body, but block estrogen’s effects in others. One SERM, tamoxifen, has long been used because it blocks the action of estrogen in the breast, even though it has potential serious side effects. Another new drug acts like an antibody and binds to the cancer cells (see chapter 17 for more on antibody function).

16. Common Cancers
Prostate Cancer - Most common cancer in men. Third leading cause of cancer deaths in men
Risk Factors - Age, diet, lifestyle and genetic predisposition
Early detection is key. PSA Blood test
Treatment - surgical removal of the prostate and radiation
The prostate gland is situated at the base of the bladder in men. It produces seminal fluid. If the prostate gland is enlarged, it can block the flow of urine. Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men and, after lung and colon cancer, the cause of most death. More than 180,000 new case are diagnosed each year, and about 32,000 American men die from the disease each year. Risk factors – Age is the strongest predictor of the risk, with about 75% of cases of prostate cancer diagnosed in men over age 65. Inherited genetic predisposition may be responsible for about 5-10% of cases, and men with a family history of the disease should be particularly vigilant about screening. For reasons not well understood, African American men have the highest rate of prostate cancer of any group in the world. Both genetic and lifestyle factors may be involved. Diets high in calories, dairy products, and animal fast and low in plant-foods have also been implicated as possible causes in the development of prostate cancer. Compounds in soy-foods and cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cabbage are being investigated for their possible protective effects.
Detection – Warning signs include changes in urinary frequency, weak or interrupted urine flow, painful urination, and blood in the urine. Screening test for early detection are recommended annually for men age 50 and over – earlier for African Americans and those with strong family history of the disease. Most cases of prostate cancer are first detected during a digital rectal exam. A physician can feel the prostate gland through the rectum and determine if it is enlarged or if lumps are present. The PSA blood test, which measures the amount of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the blood can also be use to help diagnose prostate cancer. An elevated level or rapid increase in PSA can signal trouble. A single measurement of PSA can help catch early prostate cancer, but it also registers benign conditions (more than half of men over 50 have benign prostate disease). Ultrasound is used increasingly as a follow-up, to detect lumps too small to be felt and to determine their size, shape , and properties. A needle biopsy of suspicious lumps can be performed relatively painlessly, and whether the biopsied cells are malignant or benign can be determined by examination under a microscope.
Treatment – Treatments vary based on the stage of the cancer and the age of the patient. For example, a slow-growing tumor in an older man may be treated with “watchful waiting,” while a more aggressive treatment would be indicated for a young man or those with more advanced cancers. Treatment usually involves radical prostatectomy, in which the prostate is removed surgically. While radical surgery has an excellent cure rate, it is major surgery and often result in incontinence (inability to control urination) or impotence (inability to have and erection). A less-invasive alternative involves surgical implantation of radioactive seeds, which kill the tumor, most of the prostate tissue, but leave the surrounding tissue relatively untouched. In addition, there is little risk of incontinence and impotency. This is new procedure and it’s effectiveness is still being evaluated. Other treatments include external radiation, hormones, cryotherapy, and anti-cancer drugs. Survival rates for all stages of this cancer have improved steadily since The 5 year survival rate is currently about 93%.

17. Common Cancers Female Reproductive Tract: Uterus, Cervix or Ovaries.
Cervical cancer - sexually transmitted.
80% stems from infection by the papillomavirus - transmitted by unprotected sex.
PAP Test
Cervical cancer most common in women in their 20’s and 30’s.
Factors: sexual intercourse before 18, multiple sex partners, cigarette smoking and low socioeconomic status.
Because the uterus, cervix, and ovaries are subject to similar hormonal influences these organs can be discussed as a group.
Cervical cancer – Cervical cancer is at least in part a sexually transmitted disease. Probably more than 80% of cervical cancer stems from infection by the human papilomavirus (HPV), a larger group of related viruses that cause both common wart and genital warts. The HPV is introduced to the cervix through sexual contact. If unchecked, the infected cells develop into cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is associated with multiple sex partners and is extremely rare in women who have not had heterosexual intercourse. Two other important risk factors are smoking and infections with genital herpes. Screening for the changes in cervical cells that precede cancer is done mainly by means of the Pap test. During a pelvic exam, loose cells are scraped from the cervix, spread on a slide. The slide is examined to assess whether the cells are normal in size and shape. If cells are abnormal, a condition commonly referred to as cervical dysplasia, the Pap test is recommended at intervals. Sometimes cervical cells spontaneously return to normal, but in about one-third of cases, they progress toward malignancy. If this happens, the abnormal cells must be removed, either by surgery, destroying them with a cryoscopic (ultra-cold) probe, or localized laser treatment. When the cells are precancerous they are also removed. Without timely detection and surgery, the cancer spreads to the adjacent lymph nodes and the uterus. At this stage, chemotherapy may be used with radiation , but odds for a complete cure are lower. Even when a cure can be achieved, it often means surgical removal of the uterus. Because the Pap test is highly effective, all sexually active women, and women between the ages of 18-65, should be tested. Unlike most cancer, which occurs most often after the age of 60, cancer of the cervix occurs frequently in women in their 20’s and 30’s. Although screening can clearly save lives, it is low in groups associated with low socioeconomic status and women with less than a high school education. Mortality rates for cervical cancer are twice as high for black women as for white women.

18. Common Cancers Uterine, or Endometrial:
Occurs after 55
Determined by Pelvic Exam
Treatment is surgery
Ovarian Cancer: Difficult to detect and diagnosis, No warning signs
Family history or genetic factors
Treatment is surgery & radiation
Uterine or endometrial cancer – Cancer of the lining of the uterus, or endometrium, most often occurs after the age of 55. The risk factors are similar to those for breast cancer. The use of oral contraceptives, which combine estrogen and progestin, appears to provide protection. Uterine cancer is usually detectable by pelvic examination. Commonly, it is treated surgically by hysterectomy (removal of the uterus). Radiation treatment and chemotherapy may be used in addition to surgery. When the tumor is detected at an early stage, abut 96% of patients are alive and disease-free 5 years later. When the disease has spread beyond the uterus, the survival rate is les than 64%.
Ovarian cancer – Although ovarian cancer is rare compared with cervical or uterine cancer, it cause more deaths than the other two combined. It cannot be detected by Pap test or any other simple screening method and is often diagnosed only late in its development, when surgery and other therapies are unlikely to be successful. The risk factors are similar to those for breast and uterine cancer. There are often no warming signs of developing ovarian cancer. Therefore, women at high risk should have thorough pelvic exams (not routine screenings) at regular intervals. Ovarian cancer is treated by surgical removal of both ovaries, the fallopian tubes, and the uterus. Radiation and chemotherapy are sometimes used in addition to surgery. When the tumor is localized to the ovary, the survival rate after 5 years is 95%, but for all stages, it is only 50%.
Other female reproductive tract cancers – From , millions of women were given a synthetic hormone called DES (diethylstilbestrol), which was thought to help prevent miscarriage. It was later discovered that daughters born to these women have increase risk of rare form of vaginal or cervical cancer called clear cell cancer. DES daughters and son appear to be at risk of other reproductive tract problems. Research is ongoing regarding the effects of DES granddaughters.

19. Common Cancers Skin Cancer: Most common form
Easily detected and highly curable
Exposure to ultraviolet rays during childhood
Common cause - sunburns and suntans
Types:
Basal and Squamous
Melanoma - more dangerous form
Prevention
Detection and Treatment
Skin cancer is the most common cancer of all when cases of the highly curable forms are included in the count (usually these forms are not included, because they are easily treated). Of the more than 1 million cases of skin cancer diagnosed each year, 48,000 melanoma, which are the most serious type. Treatments are usually simple and successful.
Risk factors – Almost all cases of skin cancer can be traced to excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, including longer-wavelength UVA and shorter-wavelength UVB radiation. UVB causes sunburns and can damage the eyes and the immune system. UVA is less likely to cause and immediate sunburn, but by damaging connective tissue, it leads to premature aging of the skin, which gives it a wrinkled, leathery appearance (tanning lamps and tanning-salon beds emit mostly UVA radiation). Both UVA and UVB radiations have been linked to the development of skin cancer, and the National Toxicology Program has declared both solar and artificial sources of UV radiation to be know human carcinogens. Both, severe acute sun reactions (sunburns) and chronic low-level sun reactions (suntans) can lead to skin cancer. People with fair skin have less natural protection against skin damage from the sun and a higher risk of developing skin cancer. People with naturally dark skin have a considerable degree of protection. Caucasians are about 20 times more likely than African Americans to develop melanoma. Severe sunburns in childhood have been linked to a greatly increased risk of skin cancer in later live, so children should be protected. Other risk factors include having many moles, particularly large ones, spending time at high altitudes,and a family history of the disease. Skin cancer may also be caused by other environmental factors.
Types of skin cancer – There are three main types of skin cancer and they are named for the types of skin cell from which the develop. Basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas together account for about 95% of the skin cancer diagnosed each year. They are usually found in chronically sun-exposed areas, such as the face, neck, hands, and arms. They usually appear as pale, waxlike, pearly nodules or red, scaly, sharply outlined patches. These cancers are often painless, although they may bleed, crust, and form an open sore on the skin. Melanoma is by far the most dangerous skin cancer because it spreads so rapidly. Since 1973, the incidence of melanoma has increased by about 4% per year. It is the most common cancer among women age years. It can occur anywhere on the body, but the most common sites are the back, chest, abdomen, and lower legs. A melanoma usually appears on the site of a preexisting mole. The mole may begin to enlarge, become mottled or varied in color (colors can include blue, pink, and white), or develop an irregular surface or irregular borders. Tissue invaded by melanoma may also itch, burn, or bleed.
Prevention, and Detection and treatment are discussed on the next slide

21. Common Cancers Oral Cancer Testicular Cancer Pancreatic Cancer
Stomach Cancer
Bladder Cancer
Kidney Cancer
Brain Cancer
Oral cancers include cancers of the lip, tongue, mouth, and throat.
Risk factors – Oral cancers can be traced principally to cigarette, cigar, or pipe smoking, the use of spit tobacco, and the excess use of alcohol. These risk factors work together to multiply a person’s risk of oral cancer. The incidence of oral cancer is twice as high in men as in women and most frequent in men over 40. Some prominent sufferers of oral cancer have included Sigmund Freud and Fidel Castro, both notorious cigar smokes. Sports figures who have cultivated a taste for spit tobacco are now also increasingly being diagnosed with oral cancer. Among long-term snuff users, the excess risk of cancers of the cheek, tongue, and gum is nearly fifty-fold (see chapter 11 for more information).
Detection and treatment - Oral cancers do have the virtue of being fairly easy to detect, but they are often hard to cure. The primary methods of treatment are surgery and radiation. The 5-year survival rates vary from 91% for lip cancer to 26% for throat cancer. The overall survival rate is about 53%.
Testicular cancer – Testicular cancer can be detected early through self-examination and easily curable if treated in its early stage.
Other cancers – Some of these include pancreatic cancer, stomach cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, brain cancer, and leukemia.
Testicular cancer is relatively rare, accounting for only about 1% of cancers in men (about 6900 cases per year), but it is the most common cancer in men age
Risk factors – Testicular cancer is much more common among white Americans than Latinos, Asian Americans or African Americans. Incidence of testicular cancer is also more common among men whose father had testicular cancer. Men with undescended testicles are at increased risk for testicular cancer. For this reason undescended testicles should be corrected in early childhood. Men whose mother took DES during pregnancy have an increased risk of undescended testicles and other genital anomalies. Therefore, they may have a higher risk of testicular cancer.
Detection and treatment – Self-examination helps in the early detection of testicular cancer. Tumors are treated by surgical removal of the testicle and if the tumor has spread, by chemotherapy. The 5-year survival rate for testicular cancer is 95%.
Several other cancer affect a significant number of people each year. Some have identifiable risk factors, particularly smoking and obesity, that are controllable; while the causes of others are still under investigation.
Pancreatic cancer – The pancreas, a gland found deep within the abdomen behind the stomach, produces both digestive enzymes and insulin. Because of the gland’s hidden location, pancreatic cancer is usually well advanced before symptoms become noticeable. No effective cure is available, and it is the fifth leading cause of cancer death in the U.S. In 2000, there were 28,300 new cases and about 28,000 deaths. About 3 out of 10 cases of pancreatic cancer are linked to smoking. Other risk factors include being male, African American, or over age 60, having diabetes, and eating a diet high in fat and meat and low in vegetables
Stomach cancer – In many parts of the world, stomach cancer is the most common form of cancer. It is relatively unusual in the U.S., with about 21,500 new cases and 13,000 deaths each year. It tends to occur after the age of 50 and is twice as common in men as in women. Risk factors included infection with the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which has also been linked to the development of ulcers, and a diet high in smoked, salted , or pickled fish or meat. Bacteria, including H. pylori, can convert the nitrates in preserved foods into carcinogenic amines, and salt can break down the normal protective stomach coating, allowing these carcinogenic compounds access to the cells of the stomach wall. However, the great majority of people with H. pylori infection do not develop stomach cancer, particularly if they maintain a low-salt diet with adequate amounts of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. There is no screening test for stomach cancer. It is usually recognized only after it has spread. The 5-year survival rate is only 21% for all stages.
Bladder cancer – This cancer is twice as common in men as in women, and smoking is the key risk factor. People living in urban areas and workers exposed to chemicals used in the dye, rubber, and leather industries are also at increase risk. There is no screening test for bladder cancer. The first symptoms are likely to be blood in the urine and/or increased frequency of urination. These symptoms can also signal a urinary infection, but should trigger a visit to a physician, who can evaluate the possibility of cancer. With early detection, more than 90% of cases are curable. There were about 53,000 new cases and about 12,000 deaths in 2000.
Kidney cancer – Although this cancer usually occurs in people over 50, anyone can develop it and there are mild controllable risk factors. Smoking and obesity are mild risk factors, as is a family history of the disease. Symptoms may include fatigue, pain in the side, and blood in the urine. Kidney cancer has been difficult to treat, with a 5-tear survival rate of only 60% for all stages. Recently, immune cell therapies have shown some promise in the disease’s advanced stage. There are about 31,000 new cases each year and about 12,000 deaths.
Brain cancer, Leukemia, Lymphoma (Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s), and Multiple myeloma are on the next slide.

22. Common Cancers Leukemia: Cancers of the blood forming tissues
Abnormal production of immature white blood cells; rapidly growing cells displace red blood cell precursors
Immature WBC’s cannot fight off infections
Risk factors are unknown
Leukemia – Leukemia, cancer of the white blood cells, can affect both children and adults. It starts in the bone marrow, but can then spread to the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, other organs, and the central nervous system. Like brain cancer, it is a complex disease with many different types and subtypes. Most people with leukemia have no known risk factors. About 20% of cases of adult leukemia are related to smoking. Other possible risk factors include radiation and certain chemicals and infections. Most symptoms occur because leukemia cells crowd out the production of normal blood cells. The result of this process can be fatigue, anemia, weight loss, and increased risk of infection. Treatment and survival rates vary, depending on the exact type and other factors. There were 30,800 new cases in 2000 and 21,700 deaths.

23. Common Cancers Lymphoma Multiple Myeloma Arising from the lymph cells
Hodgkin’s disease
Non-Hodgkin’s disease
Multiple Myeloma
Malignant plasma cells produce tumors in the bone marrow.
Leads to anemia, excessive bleeding and decreased resistance to infection
Lymphoma (Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin’s) – Arising from the lymph cells, lymphoma, begins in the lymph nodes and then may spread to almost any part of the body. There are two types – Hodgkin’s disease and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL). NHL is the more common and deadly form of the disease. It is the fifth most common cancer in the U.S., with about 55,000 people diagnosed annually. About half of all patients will eventually die from the disease. Risk factors for NHL are not well understood, but may include genetic factors, radiation, and certain chemicals and infections. A new therapy based on the use of antibodies has shown promise in treating patients. Rates of Hodgkin’s disease have fallen by more than 50% since the early 1970’s, and there are now about 7400 cases and 1400 deaths each year.
Multiple myeloma – Normal plasma cells play an important role in the immune system, producing antibodies. Malignant plasma cells may produce tumors in several sites, particularly in the bone marrow. When they grow in multiple sites, they are referred to as multiple myeloma (MM). By crowding out normal bone marrow cells, MM can lead to anemia, excessive bleeding, and decrease resistance to infections. Age is the most significant risk factor. Only 2% of cases are diagnosed in people under 40, and the average age of diagnosis is about 70. Other risk factors are not well understood, although MM is about twice as common among African Americans as whites. Although treated with chemotherapy and slow in its progression, the disease is usually fatal. There are about 13,600 new cases each year and 11,200 deaths.

24. The Cause of Cancer The Role of DNA DNA Mutations and Cancer
Each cells has 23 pairs of chromosomes
Each controls the way a cell will work
A gene
DNA Mutations and Cancer
Changes the way the cells function
Mutagens
Oncogenes
Tumor suppressor genes
Hereditary Risks
Although scientists do not know everything about what causes cancer, they have identified genetic, environment, and lifestyle factors. There are usually several steps in the transformation of a normal cell into a cancer cell, and in many cases, different factors may work together in the development of cancer.
The role of DNA – Although much still needs to be learned about the role of genetics in cancer, it’s clear that minimizing mutation damage to our DNA will lower our risk of many cancers. Unfortunately, many substances produce cancer-causing mutations, and we can’t escape them all. By identifying the important carcinogens and understanding how they produce their effects, we can help keep our DNA intactive and avoid activating “sleeping” oncogenes (cells that are involved in the transformation of a normal cell into a cancer cell). The study of oncogenes should also lead to more precise methods of assessing cancer risk, and to new methods of diagnosis and treatment.
Dietary factors – Diet is one of the most important factors in cancer prevention, but it is also one of the most complex and controversial . Diets high in meat and fat, fast food, refined carbohydrates, and simple sugars and low fruits and vegetables are associated with a higher risk of cancer that are plant-based diets rich in whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. The picture becomes less clear when researchers attempt to identify the particular nutrients and other constituents in foods that affect cancer risk. Alcohol consumption contributes to an increased risk of several cancers. These factors are discussed on slide 18.
Inactivity and obesity – Several common types of cancer (colon, breast, colon, prostate, female reproductive tract, kidney, and possibly gallbladder) are associated with an inactive lifestyle and obesity. Exercise has been shown to reduce the risk of many cancers, as well as obesity. Obesity alone, is an independent risk factor for many cancers. In the U.S., about 170,000 cancer deaths per year appear to be due to a combination of dietary habits and a sedentary lifestyle. One expert estimates that if Americans would exercise for 20 minutes everyday and make appropriate dietary changes, about 40,000 cancer deaths could be prevented each year.
Microbes – It is estimated that about 15% of the world’s cancers are caused by microbes, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites, although the percentage is much lower in developed countries like the U.S. For example, certain types of the HPV cause many cases of cervical cancer and the H. pylori bacterium is definitely linked to stomach cancer. Viruses seem to be the main cancer causers. For example: the Epstein-Barr virus (causes mono) is suspected to contribute to the development of Hodgkin’s disease, cancer of the pharynx, and some stomach cancers; the human herpesvirus is linked to Kaposi’s sarcoma and certain types of lymphoma; and hepatitis viruses B and C together cause as many as 80% of the world’s liver cancer.
Carcinogens in the environment – Some carcinogens occur naturally in the environment, like the sun’s UV rays. Others, are manufactured on synthetic substances that appear occasionally in the general environment, but more often in the work environment of specific industries. See slide 19 for more details.

25. Links to Cancer
Foods:
Both carcinogens and compounds that provide protection
Dietary Fat and Meat (Saturated Fats)
Alcohol
Dietary Fiber
Fruits and Vegetables
Anticarcinogens
Carotenoids
Antioxidants versus Free radicals
Phytochemicals
Sulforaphane
The foods you eat contain many biologically active compounds, and your food choices affect your cancer risk by both exposing you to potentially dangerous compounds and depriving you of potentially protective ones. Research into particular food components can help guide you in making dietary choices but keep in mind that the overall quality of your diet is most important.
Dietary fat and meat – In general, diets high in fat and meat have been associated with higher rates of certain cancers, including those of the colon and prostate. As is the case with heart disease, certain type of fats may be riskier than others. Studies have suggested that diets with omega-6 polyunsaturated fats and diets and particular fatty acids and iron found in meat may increase the risk of cancer; while monounsaturated fats and omega-3 fatty acids may have a protective effect. In addition, curing, smoking, and grilling and other forms of cooking that expose meat to a direct flame or high temperature may produce carcinogenic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Although the mechanisms are unclear, a diet low in saturated fats is recommended.
Alcohol – Alcohol is related to an increased incidence of several types of cancer. An average alcohol intake of three drinks per day is associated with a doubling in the risk of breast cancer. Alcohol and tobacco interact as risk factors for oral cancer, and heavy users of both have substances a risk of oral cancer up to 15 times greater than people who don’t smoke or drink.
Fiber – Determining the effects of fiber intake on cancer is complicated by the fact that fiber is found in foods that also contain many other potential anti-cancer agents – fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Various potential cancer-fighting actions have been proposed for fiber, but none of these actins has been firmly established. Further study is needed to clarify the relationship between fiber intake and cancer risks. However, experts still recommend a high-fiber diet for its overall positive effect on health.
Fruits and vegetables – A massive number of epidemiological studies provide evidence that high consumption of fruits and vegetables reduce the risk of many cancers. Exactly which constituents of fruits and vegetables are responsible for this reduction in risk is less certain. Researchers have identified many mechanisms by which food components may act against cancer: some prevent carcinogens from forming in the first place or block them from reaching or acting on targets, others boost enzymes that detoxify carcinogens and render them harmless; still others act on cells that have already been exposed to carcinogens, slowing the development of cancer or starving cancer cells of oxygen and nutrients by cutting off their blood supply. Some essential nutrients- the antioxidants (Vitamins C, E, selenium, and the carotenoids [vitamin A precursors including beta carotene]) act as anticarcinogens by preventing free radicals from damaging DNA (see chapter 12). Many other anti-cancer agents are classified as phytochemicals (substances in plants that help protect against chronic diseases). To increase your intake of these potential anticarcinogens, eat a variety of fruits, vegetables, legumes and grains. Don’t try to rely on supplements.

26. Foods That Contain Cancer-Preventing Substances
Broccoli
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Carrots
Red peppers
Tomato
Sweet potato
Collard greens
Green Tea
Kale
Spinach
Apricot
Cantaloupe
Grapefruit
Orange
Papaya
Peach
Plum
Watermelon

27. Links to Cancer Inactivity and Obesity Benefits of Physical Activity
Linked to colon cancer
Benefits of Physical Activity
Inactivity and obesity – Several common types of cancer (colon, breast, colon, prostate, female reproductive tract, kidney, and possibly gallbladder) are associated with an inactive lifestyle and obesity. Exercise has been shown to reduce the risk of many cancers, as well as obesity. Obesity alone, is an independent risk factor for many cancers. In the U.S., about 170,000 cancer deaths per year appear to be due to a combination of dietary habits and a sedentary lifestyle. One expert estimates that if Americans would exercise for 20 minutes everyday and make appropriate dietary changes, about 40,000 cancer deaths could be prevented each year.

28. Carcinogens in the Environment
Ingested Chemicals
Environmental and Industrial pollution
Radiation
In the research of possible causes of cancer, several environmental factors have been suggested. These include:
Ingested chemicals – The food industry uses preservatives and other additives to prevent food from becoming spoiled or stale (see chapter 12). Some of these compounds are antioxidants and may actually decrease any cancer-causing properties the food might have. Other compounds, like the nitrates and nitrites found in processed meat, are potentially more dangerous. While nitrates and nitrites are not themselves carcinogenic, they can combine with dietary substances in the stomach and be converted to nitrosamines, which are highly potent carcinogens. Foods cured with nitrites, as well as those cured by salt or smoke, have been linked to esophageal and stomach cancer, and they should be eaten only in modest amounts.
Environmental and industrial pollution – Urban air pollution appears to have a measurable, but limited role in causing lung cancer (smoking has by far the greatest impact). The best available data indicate that less than 2% of cancer deaths are caused by general environmental pollution, such as substances in our air and water. Exposure to carcinogenic materials in the workplace is a more serious problem. Occupational exposure to specific carcinogens may account for up to 5% of cancer deaths. With increasing industry and government regulations, industrial sources of cancer can diminish, at least in the U.S. By contrast, in the former Soviet Union and Eastern European countries, where environmental concerns were sacrificed to industrial productivity for decades, cancer rates from industrial pollution continue to climb.
Radiation – All sources of radiation are potentially carcinogenic, including medical X rays, radioactive substances (radioisotopes), and UV rays from the sun. The immediate devastation and continuing cancer cases from major radioactive exposures such a Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Chernobyl are examples that any unnecessary exposure to ionizing radiation should be avoided. Most physicians and dentists are quite aware of the risk of radiation, and successful efforts have been made to reduce the amount of radiation needed for mammograms, dental X rays, and other necessary medical X rays. Another source of environmental radiation is radon gas which occurs naturally in some types of rock formations and soil. When inhaled, in can cause cells to mutate in the lungs; therefore, homes at high risk for radon should be tested and appropriate actions taken if levels of the gas are high. Sunlight is a very important source of radiation, but because its rays penetrate only a millimeter or so into the skin, it could be considered a “surface carcinogen.” Most cases of skin cancer are the relatively benign and highly curable basal cell carcinomas, but a substantial minority are the potentially deadly malignant melanomas. All types of skin cancer are increased by early and excessive exposure to the sun, and severe sunburn early in childhood appears to carry with it and added risk of melanoma later in life.

29. Detecting, Diagnosing, and Treating Cancer
Self-monitoring
Diagnosing
Biopsy
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Computed tomography (CT)
Ultrasonography
Early cancer detection often depends on our willingness to be aware of changes in our own body and to make sure we keep up-to-date with recommended diagnostic tests. Although treatment success varies with individual cancers, cure rate have increased – sometimes dramatically – in the 20th century.
Detecting cancer (CAUTION) – Unlike many other diseases, the early signs of cancer may not be apparent to anyone but the person who has it. Self-monitoring is the first line of defense for early detection and the America Cancer Society (ACS) recommends that you watch for the seven major warning signs of cancer. These can be remembered by the acronym CAUTION (see the next slide [21]). Self-monitoring also includes performing appropriate self-examinations. Another part of the early detection process is to be aware of your family history as it relates to the incidence of cancer. In addition to self-monitoring, the ACS recommends a routine cancer checkup every year for people age 40 and over, as well as specific screening tests for certain cancers, including those of the breast, colon, and prostate.
Diagnosing cancer – Detection of cancer by physical examination is only the beginning. Methods for determining the exact location, type, and degree (stage) of malignancy of a cancer continue to improve. This knowledge is necessary for precise and effective treatment. A biopsy or exploratory surgery may be performed to identify the stage of the cancer. Newer techniques, such as MRI, CT scanning, and ultrasound produce much more detailed diagnostic information than was possible with conventional X rays.
Treating cancer – The ideal cancer treatment would kill or remove all cancerous cells while leaving normal tissue untouched. Sometimes this may be possible, such as when a surgeon removes a small superficial tumor for the skin. Usually the tumor is less accessible, and some combination of surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy must be applied instead. See slide 22 for more information.
Living with cancer – In the early to mid- 20th century being diagnosed with cancer was almost equivalent to a death sentence. Gradually, survival has become the norm and, in fact, there are 8.4 million cancer survivors in the U.S. today. However, for most of these people, the fear of cancer never completely disappears, and there is always the risk of a recurrence. Cancer survivors may suffer economic prejudice from insurers, who can refuse to issue or renew health coverage (many states are passing legislation to prevent this discrimination). Psychological support is an important factor during treatment. Many times this support comes from family, friends, physicians and other medical personnel, and support groups. There is some evidence that cancer patients may live longer when they become part of a professionally led support group. The possibility that psychological health can enhance cancer survival is controversial, but no one doubts that support groups can promote emotional wellness in both patients and their families.

30. Detecting Cancer Self Monitoring is Essential
C Change in bowel or bladder habits
A A sore that does not heal
U Unusual bleeding or discharge
T Thickening or lump in breasts or elsewhere
I Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing
O Obvious change in a wart or mole
N Nagging cough or hoarseness

32. Detecting, Diagnosing and Treating Cancer
Treatment:
Surgery
Chemotherapy
Radiation Therapy
New and Experimental
Gene therapy
Bone marrow and Stem Cell transplants
Biological therapies
There are three main therapies for treating cancer and many more being researched and developed. They include: Surgery – For most cancers, surgery is the most useful therapy. In many cases, the organ containing the tumor is not essential for life and can be partially or completely removed. This is true especially for localized breast, prostate, or testicular cancer, where the surgical removal of one organ or the total gland, may provide a long-lasting cure. Surgery is less effective when the tumor involves cells of the immune system or when the cancer has already metastasized. In such cases, surgery must be combined with other therapies.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the use of cell-killing drugs designed to selectively destroy rapidly growing cells. It has been used since the 1940’s. Many of these drugs work by interfering with DNA synthesis and replication in rapidly dividing cells. Normal cells, which usually grow slowly, are not destroyed by these drugs. However, some normal tissues, such as intestinal, hair, and blood-forming cells are always growing, and damage to these tissues produces the unpleasant side effects of chemotherapy. Some of these side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and hair loss. Chemotherapy drugs are often used in combinations or with surgery. Recently, in a procedure call induction chemotherapy, physicians have begun to use chemotherapy before surgery,both to shrink the tumor and to kill any existing small metastases as soon as possible.
Radiation – In cancer radiation therapy, a beam of X rays or gamma rays is directed at the tumor causing the cancer cells to die. Occasionally, when an organ is small enough, radioactive seeds are surgically placed inside the cancerous organ to destroy the tumor and then removed later if necessary. Radiation destroys both normal and cancerous cells. But because it can be precisely directed at the tumor, it is usually less toxic for the patient than either surgery or chemotherapy, and it can often be performed on an outpatient basis. Radiation may be used as an exclusive treatment or in combination with surgery and/or chemotherapy.
New and experimental techniques – There are many new and exciting possibilities for cancer therapy that may become alternatives to the traditional forms of treatment. Researchers are hopeful that no matter which therapy is used, new or old, treatment overall will become safer and more effective. Some of the new therapies include: gene therapy – This research is based on completion in 2000 of the sequencing of the human genome. Gene patterns are being mapped to create targeted therapies; bone marrow and stem cell transplants – This is being used in patients with blood-forming cell and lymph cell cancer. After a patients own bone marrow has been eliminated by drugs or radiation, healthy bone marrow from a donor or a stem cell is transplanted back into the patient. Stem cells are unique, unspecialized cells that can divide and provide more specialized cells, including bone marrow cells; biological therapies – These are based on enhancing the immune system’s reaction to a tumor; protease inhibitors – These drugs interfere with the enzyme that allows cancer to metastasize; anti-angiogenesis drugs – These drugs attempt to block the cancer’s nutrient source which involves body’s ability to produce new blood vessels; and telomerase inhibitors – These drugs will attempt to block the enzyme that allows cancer cells to not die after a limited number of cell divisions.

33. Cancer Survivors Must live with fear of recurrence
Face prejudice from health insurers
Psychological support is important
Financial impact

34. Prevention Lifestyle choices Avoid tobacco Control diet and weight
Regular exercise
Protecting skin from the sun
Avoiding environmental and occupational carcinogens
Regular self exams
Medical screenings
Be aware of the early signs and symptoms
Your lifestyle choices can radically lower your cancer risks, so you can take a very practical approach to cancer prevention.
Avoid tobacco – Smoking is responsible for 80-90% of all lung cancers and for about 30% of all cancer deaths. The carcinogenic chemicals in smoke are transported throughout the body in the bloodstream, making smoking a carcinogen for many forms of cancer. The use of spit tobacco, which is highly habit forming because of its nicotine content, is also extremely dangerous because of its link cancers of the mouth, larynx, throat, and esophagus. Evidence has also shown that ETS is dangerous to nonsmokers. The message is clear if you smoke or chew, quit (either by yourself or seek help). If you don’t smoke, stay away from ETS. Refer to chapter 11.
Controlling diet and weight – Based on hundreds of studies, the National Cancer Institute estimates that about one-third of all cancer are linked to what we eat. Choose a low-fat, plant-based diet containing a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains rich in phytochemicals. Drink alcohol only in moderation, if at all. Maintaining a healthy weight through a moderate diet and regular exercise has been proven to lower your risk. See chapters 12 and 14.
Regular exercise – The U.S. Surgeon General recommends a moderate amount of physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week. Regular exercise has been shown to reduce risk of several types of cancer. See chapter 13.
Protect skin from the sun – Almost all cases of non-melanoma skin cancer are considered to be sun-related, and sun exposure is a major factor in the development of melanoma as well. Wear protective clothing when you’re out in the sun, and use a sunscreen with an SPF of 15 or higher. Don’t go to tanning salons. They do not provide “safe tans.”
Avoiding environmental and occupational carcinogens – Most medical X rays are adjusted to deliver the lowest dose of radiation possible without sacrificing image quality. Radiation from radon gas may pose a threat in some homes and steps should be taken if tests indicate high levels of radon. Try to avoid occupational exposure to carcinogens, and don’t smoke. The cancer risks of many of the agents increase greatly when combined with smoking.
Recommended screening tests – Primary prevention is your first line of defense against cancer. This involves lifestyle changes while your are still cancer free. Your second line of defense involves early detection from self-exams and medical screening test. Follow ACS guidelines for screenings. Your third and final line of defense involves treatment and rehabilitation. Count on lifestyle changes (primary prevention) and a program of early detection (secondary prevention) to create your long-term wellness plan for the achievement of health and quality of life.

36. Thanks!!!!!!!