1. Larry Braile, braile@purdue.edu, web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile Sheryl Braile CSTA/NSTA, Long Beach, CA, December 4-6, 2014 (Despite the popularity of this image, tsunami waves do not normally look like this, especially in the open ocean) Tsunami! Understanding the Generation, Propagation, and Hazards of Tsunamis This PowerPoint Presentation (last modified December, 2014) : http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/Tsunami!.ppt

2. Tsunamis can be generated by: 1. Large Earthquakes (megathrust events such as Sumatra, Dec. 26, 2004; Japan, Mar. 11, 2011) 2. Underwater or near-surface volcanic eruptions (Krakatoa, 1883) 3. Comet or asteroid impacts (evidence for tsunami deposits from the Chicxulub impact 65 mya) 4. Large landslides that extend into water (Lituya Bay, AK, 1958) 5. Large undersea landslides (evidence for prehistoric undersea landslides in Hawaii and off the east coast of North America)

3. Schematic plate tectonic setting for tsunami generation NOAA Commonly, in mega-thrust earthquakes, a very large area of the ocean floor is uplifted TRENCH

4. Earthquake generation of tsunami (note: tsunami wave in the animation should be asymmetrical with a first peak traveling to the left and a first trough traveling to the right) http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/645fall2003_web.dir/elena_suleimani/generation_small.mov http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm Animation

5. Modified from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018 /001898/189842e.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018 /001898/189842e.pdf Ocean floor dragged down (friction) Ocean floor bowed up (elastic bending) Rebound with fault slip Peak Trough Plate Motion

6. http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/foammod/foammod.htm http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/foammod/foammod.pdf Illustrating the positive and negative pulses of the tsunami wave produced by a subduction zone earthquake Lithosphere bows up here prior earthquake slip due to elastic bending Lithosphere dragged down here due to friction between the upper and lower plates

7. Exploring Planet Earth Blind Thrust Fault Earthquake Rupture Animation (Northridge, 1994) Brad Aagaard, USGS http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/baagaard/research/animations/animations.html The fault rupture will be visible in the animation. Displacements (magnified 3000 times) will be visible by the movement of the mesh from the model. The amplitude of motions and seismic waves is color coded according to ground velocity. Note the rupture along the fault over time from the deepest extent of the fault. http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/new/AagaardBlindThrustAnimation.ppt

8. Blind Thrust Fault Earthquake Rupture Animation – Brad Aagaard, USGS http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/baagaard/research/animations/animations.html The fault rupture will be visible in the animation. Displacements (magnified 3000 times) will be visible by the movement of the mesh from the model. The amplitude of seismic waves is color coded according to ground velocity.

9. http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/office/baagaard/research/animations/animations.html Earthquake Rupture

10. DescriptorMagnitudeAverage Annually Great8 and higher1 ¹ Major7 - 7.917 ² Strong6 - 6.9134 ² Moderate5 - 5.91319 ² Light4 - 4.913,000 (est.) Minor3 - 3.9130,000 (est.) Very Minor2 - 2.91,300,000 (est.) ¹ Based on observations since 1900. ² Based on observations since 1990. Worldwide earthquakes per year (from USGS):

11. Worldwide earthquakes per year: Frequency-magnitude relationship suggests that magnitude 9+ events will occur about once per decade, statistically; since 1900, the actual number is ~once per 20 years.

12. Tsunami Statistics (NOAA): http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/tsustats.pdfhttp://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/tsustats.pdf Tsunami Statistics (NOAA): http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/tsustats.pdf (Dec. 26, 2004 tsunami, over 250,000 deaths; Jan. tsunami, over 18,000 deaths)http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/tsustats.pdf Tsunami Statistics

13. Tsunami wave propagation characteristics – note that as water depth becomes smaller, waves slow down, become shorter wavelength ( ), and have larger amplitude. When the water is 10 m deep, what is the separation of the waves in minutes? (hint: t =  v) NOAA

14. Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University http://www.gmi.edu/~drussell/demos.html Water waves animation Direction of propagation

15. Tsunami velocity and amplitude equations (These are plane layer [flat ocean bottom] equations) 1.Wave velocity controlled by water depth: v = (g x d) 1/2 where v is velocity, d is water depth and g is the acceleration of gravity = 9.8 m/s 2 ; so, velocity decreases in shallower water. 2.Wave height (amplitude) increases (conservation of energy) in shallow water: A S = A D x (V D /V S ) 1/2 where A S = amplitude in shallow water, A D = amplitude in deep water, V S = velocity in shallow water, and V D = velocity in deep water.

16. Geist, Titov and Synolakis, Tsunami: Wave of Change, Scientific American, January, 2006. Wave Heights – Satellite observation versus calculated model – open ocean, deep water ~1600 km; ~2.2 hours of waves at 750 km/hr

17. Tsunami Wave Tank 1. “SnapLock Select” plastic underbed storage box 118 x 51 x 13 cm (45” x 21” 5”) from Walmart, K-Mart, etc. (or Sterilite #1996, 74 qt.), remove handles, fill holes with silicon sealer. 2. Plexiglass 53 x 48 x 0.5 cm (21” x 19” x 3/16”) [could use sand for “coastal area” instead of plexiglass]. 3.Two 30 cm plastic rulers with clay base, 30 cm apart. 4.Fill to 8 cm deep with water.

18. Tsunami Wave Tank http://www.target.com/p/Sterilite-74-qt-Ultra-Storage-Box-White/-/A-10497010

19. Tsunami Wave Tank (close-up of ruler and plexiglass – note slope representing shallowing of water depth adjacent to coast)

20. Tsunami Wave Tank – Video of Wave Tank Download Tank.mov from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm

21. Tsunami Wave Tank – Video of Waves Water Drop – Point source, circular spreading of energy: Download WaterDrop3.mov and WaterDrop4Measure.mov from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm 1. What are the characteristics of the waves generated by the water drop? 2. Measure the velocity of the wave using a stopwatch (distance from center to side of tank in cm, divided by time in seconds). 3. Can you observe reflected waves. 4. Why do the waves eventually disappear?

22. Tsunami Wave Tank – Video of Waves Line Source (plane wave) – No spreading of energy: Download PlaneWave1.mov from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm 1. What are the characteristics of the waves generated by the line source? 2. Measure the velocity of the wave using a stopwatch (follow one wave crest from first ruler to the second – 30 cm divided by time). 3. What is the wave height? 4. What is the wave length? 5. Do the waves get smaller with distance of propagation? 6. What type of water wave in the ocean is similar to these waves?

23. Ocean Waves

24. Tsunami Wave Tank – Video of Waves Tsunami – Line source and entire water column disturbed: Download Tsunami2.mov from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm 1.What are the characteristics of the waves generated by the tsunami source? 2. Measure the velocity of the wave using single frame advance (follow one wave crest from first ruler to the second – 30 cm divided by time). 3. What is the wave height? 4. What is the wave length? 5. What happens to the wave as it propagates into shallow water?

25. Tsunami Wave Tank – Video of Waves Tsunami – Line source and entire water column disturbed: Download Tsunami4Measure.mov from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm (Use pause and single frame advance to observe wave characteristics) ~5.8 s ~6.2 s  Note Long Wavelength  Note Wave Cresting 

26. Tsunami Wave Tank Materials Wave generation sources; drop into water or oscillate up and down on water surface to create waves: Golf ball, plastic golf ball (or table tennis ball), eye dropper, clay, wood, styrofoam strips 48 x 10 x 2.5 cm (19” x 3.75” x 1”)

27. Geist, Titov and Synolakis, Tsunami: Wave of Change, Scientific American, January, 2006. 26 Dec. 2004 Tsunami max. wave height and arrival time

28. Seismic Eruption software: http://www.geol.binghamton.edu/faculty/jones/http://www.geol.binghamton.edu/faculty/jones/ Indonesia area historical earthquakes files, download from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm

29. Seismic Eruption software: http://www.geol.binghamton.edu/faculty/jones/http://www.geol.binghamton.edu/faculty/jones/ Sumatra earthquake and aftershocks files, download from: http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/TsunamiFiles.htm

30. Tsunami simulation (Note: wave trough is first arriving energy propagating to the East, and focusing of energy to west and east of the earthquake rupture area) http://staff.aist.go.jp/kenji.satake/animation.gif

31. Tsunami simulations Open Quick Time simulations (see these websites) http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/ http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/Mov/TITO V-INDO2004.mov http://es.ucsc.edu/~ward/indo.mov Note distance of propagation and reflection of waves Thailand-Wave.wmv from http://www.asiantsunamivideos.com/http://www.asiantsunamivideos.com/ Tsunami videos:

33. Chedi Resort, Phuket, Thailand, wave height ~4+ m (?, from estimates of water level from beach umbrellas on grassy area above the beach)

34. Tilly Smith and the Dec. 26, 2004 Sumatra tsunami, Phuket, Thailand (about 10,000 people were killed by the tsunami in Thailand; Tilly is credited with saving the lives of about 100 people because she recognized the warning signs of an oncoming tsunami. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilly_Smith http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/01/0118_050118_tsunami_g eography_lesson.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6C3CJX1-d_8&spfreload=10 http://nalakagunawardene.com/2007/10/10/geography-lesson-that-saved- many-lives-the-story-of-tilly-smith/ “Tilly Smith learned about tsunamis in a geography lesson two weeks before the tsunami from her teacher Andrew Kearney at Danes Hill School in Oxshott, Surrey. She recognised the symptoms of receding water from the shoreline and frothing bubbles on the surface of the sea and alerted her parents, who warned others on the beach and the staff at the hotel on Phuket, where they were staying. The beach was evacuated before the tsunami reached shore, and was one of the few beaches on the island with no reported casualties.” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilly_Smith)

35. Banda Aceh, Sumatra, before tsunami http://geo-world.org/tsunami/

36. Banda Aceh, Sumatra, after tsunami Also: http://www.digitalglobe.com/http://www.digitalglobe.com/

37. Up to 10 m high tsunami waves hit coastal area near Sendai, in northern Honshu, Japan Tohoku, Japan tsunami, March 11, 2011

38. Tohoku, Japan Earthquake: Aftershock (and Foreshock) Sequence, 03/08/11 - 03/16/11 Note that the magnitudes of the 2011/03/11 06:15 (Mw 7.9) and 2011/03/11 06:25 (Mw 7.7) aftershocks were updated from earlier, lower estimates. Updates occurred on 03/16 and 03/18, respectively.

39. Kahului, Maui Tide data, March 8 – March 10, 2011 GMT PredictedObserved Difference (http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/index.shtml, http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/station_retriev e.shtml?type=Tide+Data)http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/index.shtml http://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/station_retriev e.shtml?type=Tide+Data Max. Amplitude ~  0.3 meters Tides

40. Kahului, Maui Tide data, March 11, 2011 GMT Predicted Observed Difference Tsunami (+/- 2 m waves, ~ 30 minute period) Max. Amplitude ~  2.0 meters

41. Kahului, Maui Tide data, February 18 - March 20, 2011 GMT PredictedObserved Difference Tsunami (still propagating through Pacific Ocean 7 days later) Max. Amplitude ~  2.0 meters Tides

42. Tsunami Videos: Tsunami wave spills over seawall, smashes boats, cars http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-zfCBCq-8I&feature=player_embedded#at=22 Massive Quake Triggers Tsunami in Japan http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1XpSLiPHLPk&feature=player_embedded Japan Earthquake 3.11.2011 - Tsunami hits http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8L2kikyVzk&feature=player_embedded TSUNAMI SENDAI AIRPORT (JAPAN 3/11/11) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k6agTZo3E5Y&feature=related First tsunami waves hit Hawaii islands, California coast after Japan 2011 earthquake http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FEeHkr5ew3c&feature=related Crescent City CA March 11 2011 Tsunami Time Lapse video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ai6pPk0VHDY Crescent City Takes Tsunami Toll http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPqCX1FUdU0 Tsunami rocks boats in Santa Cruz harbor http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cswolureeF4 Wall of Water Slams Japanese Town http://news.yahoo.com/video/world-15749633/wall-of-water-slams-japanese-town-24518186 Kailua Kona Tsunami Time Lapse 2011 Bay Front http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YjCV182S5y4&feature=player_embedded Japanese Earthquake Tsunami Wave arrives in Emeryville CA http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jdMDCLwblkY&feature=player_embedded

43. Tsunami Damage Near Sendai Tsunami Near Sendai Airport

44. Tsunami Damage from the Tohoku [Northern Honshu, Japan] M9.0 Earthquake of March 11 – Satellite View before Tsunami http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html

45. Tsunami Damage from the Tohoku [Northern Honshu, Japan] M9.0 Earthquake of March 11 – Satellite View after Tsunami http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html

46. Tsunami Damage from the Tohoku [Northern Honshu, Japan] M9.0 Earthquake of March 11 – Satellite View before Tsunami http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html

47. Tsunami Damage from the Tohoku [Northern Honshu, Japan] M9.0 Earthquake of March 11 – Satellite View after Tsunami http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/13/world/asia/satellite-photos-japan-before-and-after-tsunami.html

48. Some other recent tsunamis that have impacted the western U.S. 1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake (M8.6) Tsunami wave heights and fatalities: Oregon and California – Coo’s Bay (~3 m), Ft. Bragg (~2-3 m), Half Moon Bay (~3-4 m), Muir Beach (~4 m), Santa Cruz (~3 m, one death). Hawaiian Islands – (6-7 waves, ~15 minute period, ~8-16 m, 159 deaths, mostly in Hilo). 1964 Aleutian Islands earthquake (M9.2) Tsunami wave heights and fatalities: Seaside, Oregon (3-4 m, 4 deaths, Crescent City, California (6 m), 12 deaths in California. http://www.usc.edu/dept/tsunamis/alaska/1946/webpages/index.html http://www.usc.edu/dept/tsunamis/alaska/1964/webpages/index.html

49. http://www.usc.edu/dept/tsunamis/alaska/1946/webpages/; http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html M9.2 1964 Alaska earthquake M8.6 1946 Aleutians earthquake

50. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/170 0_Cascadia_earthquake Evidence for Cascadia tsunami: The Orphan Tsunami of 1700 (published 2005, Brian Atwater and others) Other sources of tsunamis for western U.S. The Cascadia subduction zone is likely the source area for a tsunami that struck Japan in the year 1700. Comparison of the size aftershock zone for the 2004 Sumatra earthquake with the Cascadia subduction zone

51. http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/1700_Cas cadia_earthquake

52. “A simulated tsunami reaches Japan ten hours after its start along the Pacific coast of North America” (http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1707). http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1707/pp1707.pdf Tsunami simulation for megathrust earthquake in Cascadia impacting Japan, and other locations on the Pacific ocean basin ( http://pubs.usgs. gov/pp/pp1707 ).

53. Earthquake and Tsunami Safety Earthquake safety – “Duck and cover”. Tsunami safety (when in a coastal, near-sea-level area; two situations: local EQ or distant EQ): If you feel strong shaking for 15+ seconds; after shaking, move to higher ground. If there is a tsunami warning, or if you observe unusual waves (appear to be large and rapid tidal changes, or water recedes), move to higher ground. Do not return until event is over; a tsunami includes multiple waves sometimes separated by 10-30 minutes and may last for hours.

54. Tsunami Teacher Resource Kit (17 MB pdf) from ITIC (International Tsunami Information Centre) http://www.tsunamiwave.info/ Tsunami Teacher Resources

55. IRIS Posters: http://www.iris.edu/about/publications.htm#phttp://www.iris.edu/about/publications.htm#p

56. Larry Braile, braile@purdue.edu, web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile Sheryl Braile CSTA/NSTA, Long Beach, CA, December 4-6, 2014 (Despite the popularity of this image, tsunami waves do not normally look like this, especially in the open ocean) Tsunami! Understanding the Generation, Propagation, and Hazards of Tsunamis This PowerPoint Presentation (last modified December, 2014) : http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/tsunami/Tsunami!.ppt