1. The Information-Processing Approach
The Information-Processing Approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
─ Children develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information
─ Central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking. 1

2. The Information-Processing Approach
Characteristics of the information-processing approach:
1. Thinking: To perceive, encode, represent, and store information from the world
2. Self-Modification: Represented by metacognition, “knowing about knowing” 2

3. The Information-Processing Approach Continued
3. Change Mechanisms:
Encoding Information gets into memory
Automatization Process information with little
effort
Strategy Discovery of new processing Construction procedures such as transfer and generalization 3

4. The Information-Processing Approach
Memory
What Is
Memory?
Retrieval and
Forgetting
Encoding
Storage 4

5. Memory Memory is the retention of information over time.
ENCODING
STORAGE
RETRIEVAL
Getting information into memory
Retaining information over time
Taking information out of storage 5

6. Consistent repetition of Adds to distinctiveness
Memory
ENCODING
REHEARSAL
Consistent repetition of
information over time
DEEP PROCESSING
Deeper processing,
better memory
ATTENTON
Concentrate and Focus
ORGANIZATION
Aided by chunking
CONSTRUCTING
IMAGES
ELABORATION
Adds to distinctiveness 6

7. “Getting Students to Pay Attention”
Memory
“Getting Students to Pay Attention”
Use cues and gestures
for important material
Encourage attention and
minimize distraction
Focus on active learning and
be aware of individual differences
Be interesting
Use media and technology to make learning enjoyable 7

8. Memory Memory’s Time Frames
Sensory Memory Retains information for an instant
Short-Term Limited capacity; retain for 30
Memory seconds without rehearsal
Long-Term Unlimited capacity over a long Memory period of time 8

9. Memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory9

10. Memory Developmental Changes in Memory10

11. Memory Baddeley’s Model of Memory11

12. Declarative (explicit) Nondeclarative (implicit)
Memory
Long-Term Memory
Declarative (explicit)
Nondeclarative (implicit)
Declarative is “knowing that”
Nondeclarative is knowing how
Example: I know that George Bush is president, but I don’t necessarily know how to be president
Episodic memory – where and when things occur
Semantic – general knowledge about the world
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory 12

13. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting
Primacy effect: items at the
beginning remembered best
Serial position: recall better
at the beginning and end of list
Retrieval
Specificity: associations form cues
Recall: previously learned info.,
as in fill-in-the-blank
Recognition: identify learned information, as in multiple choice 13

14. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting
Cue Dependent Forgetting
Interference Theory
Decay Theory
Caused by a lack of retrieval cues
Other information (new or old) gets in the way of what we are trying to remember
Passage of time allows “memory trace” to disintegrate 14

15. Expertise and Learning
Experts . . .
1. Have superior recall, use “chunking” of information
2. Organize around important ideas and concepts
3. Demonstrate effortless retrieval by taking the time to formulate a plan
4. Are flexible rather than having a rigid, fixed routine
5. Though talented, develop learning and study strategies
- Spread out learning
- Ask questions/take good notes
- Use a study system 15

16. Metacognition Metacognition: “Knowing about knowing”
Metacognitive Knowledge: Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts
Metacognitive Activity: Students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking 16

17. Metacognition Improvement of metacognitive skills results from:
Developmental changes as student matures cognitively
The Good information-processing model that includes specific learning strategies, knowing the similarities and differences in multiple strategies, and the benefits of using them
Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and modifying when necessary 17