1. Data Structure Repair Brian Demsky Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Massachusetts Institute of Technology

2. Motivation F = 20 G = 5 F = 20 G = 10 I = 5 J = 2 Broken Data Structure Errors Missing elements Inappropriate sharing Dangling references Out of bounds array indices Inconsistent values

3. F = 10 G = 5 F = 2 G = 1 I = 3 J = 2 F = 20 G = 10 F = 20 G = 5 F = 20 G = 10 I = 5 J = 2 Broken Data StructureConsistent Data Structure Repair Algorithm Goal

4. F = 10 G = 5 F = 2 G = 1 I = 3 J = 2 F = 20 G = 10 I = 5 J = 2 Broken Data StructureConsistent Data Structure Repair Algorithm Consistency Properties From Developer F = 20 G = 5 F = 20 G = 10 Goal

5. What Does Repair Algorithm Produce? Data structure that Satisfies consistency properties, and Heuristically close to broken data structure Not necessarily the same data structure as (hypothetical) correct program would produce But enough to keep program operating successfully

6. Where Is This Likely To Be Useful? Less useful when acceptable to reboot Must be OK to lose volatile state Must be OK to wait for reboot Cause of error must go away after reboot Persistent data structures (file systems, application files) Autonomous and/or safety critical systems Monitor/control unstable physical phenomena Largely independent subcomputations Moving time window

7. Basic Approach 10111001011 10101011101 10101110110 00011001011 10101011101 10101110110 Broken Bits Repaired Bits Broken Abstract Model Repaired Abstract Model Abstract Repair Automatically Generated Concrete Repair Model Translation

8. Developer and System Responsibilities 10111001011 10101011101 10101110110 00011001011 10101011101 10101110110 Broken Bits Repaired Bits Broken Abstract Model Repaired Abstract Model Abstract Repair Automatically Generated Concrete Repair Model Translation 1 2 Consistency Constraints 4 3 Model Definition Rules 5 Consistency Check 6

9. Architecture Rationale Why use the abstract model? Model construction separates objects into sets Reachability properties Field values Different constraints for objects in different sets Appropriate division of complexity Data structure representation complexity encapsulated in model definition rules Consistency property complexity encapsulated in (clean, uniform) model constraints

10. Talk Outline File System Example Model Definition Rules Consistency Constraints Abstract Repairs Concrete Repairs Benchmarks Specification Inference Related Work Future Directions Conclusion

11. File System Example struct disk { int blockbitmap; entry dir[numentries]; block block[numblocks]; } struct entry { byte name[Length]; int firstblock; } struct block { int nextblock; byte data[blocksize]; } struct blockbitmap subtype block { int nextblock; bit bitmap[numblocks]; } intro -52 Directory EntriesDisk Blocks 3

12. File System Model Sets of objects set Block of block : Used | Free set Used of block : Bitmap Relations between objects relation Next : Used, Used relation BlockStatus : Block, boolean Block UsedFree Next Bitmap boolean BlockStatus

13. Model Translation Bits translated to sets and relations in abstract model using statements of the form: Quantifiers, Condition => Inclusion Constraint  i  [0..numentries-1], 0  d.dir[i].firstblock  d.block[d.dir[i].firstblock]  Used  b  Used, 0  b.nextblock   b,d.block[b.nextblock]   Next  b  Used, 0  b.nextblock  d.block[b.nextblock]  Used  b in [0..numblocks-1], d.block[b]  Used  d.block[b]  Free true  d.block[d.blockbitmap]  Bitmap  j  [0..numblocks-1],  b  Bitmap, true =>  BlockStatus

14. Model for File System Example intro -52 Directory EntriesDisk Blocks 3 1 2 Used Free 0 Blocks Bitmap 3 Next

15. Developer and System Responsibilities 10111001011 10101011101 10101110110 00011001011 10101011101 10101110110 Broken Bits Repaired Bits Broken Abstract Model Repaired Abstract Model Abstract Repair Automatically Generated Concrete Repair Model Translation 1 2 Consistency Constraints 4 3 Model Definition Rules 5 Consistency Check 6

16. Consistency Constraints in Example |Bitmap|=1  u  Used, u.BlockStatus=true  f  Free, f.BlockStatus=false  b  Used, |Next.b|  1 1 2 Used Free 0 Blocks Bitmap 3 Next

17. Detecting Inconsistencies Evaluate consistency properties, find violations |Bitmap|=1 is violated - Bitmap set is empty 1 2 Used Free 0 Blocks Bitmap 3 Next

18. Developer and System Responsibilities 10111001011 10101011101 10101110110 00011001011 10101011101 10101110110 Broken Bits Repaired Bits Broken Abstract Model Repaired Abstract Model Abstract Repair Automatically Generated Concrete Repair Model Translation 1 2 Consistency Constraints 4 3 Model Definition Rules 5 Consistency Check 6

19. Repairing Violations of Model Consistency Properties Violation provides binding for quantified variables Convert Body to disjunctive normal form (p 1  …  p n )  …  (q 1  …  q m ) p 1 … p n, q 1 … q m are basic propositions Choose a conjunction to satisfy Repair violated basic propositions in conjunction

20. Repairing Violations of Basic Propositions Inequality constraints on values of numeric fields V.R = E, V.R E Compute value of expression, assign relation Presence of required number of objects |S| = C, |S|  C, |S|  C Remove or insert objects from/to set Topology of region surrounding each object |V.R| = C, |V.R|  C, |V.R|  C |R.V| = C, |R.V|  C, |R.V|  C Remove or insert tuples from/to relation Inclusion constraints: V in S, V 1 in V 2.R,  V 1,V 2  in R Remove or add the object or tuple from/to set or relation

21. Repairing Inconsistencies Repair the violation of |Bitmap|=1 by adding a block to the Bitmap set 1 2 Used Free 0 Blocks Bitmap 3 Next

22. Developer and System Responsibilities 10111001011 10101011101 10101110110 00011001011 10101011101 10101110110 Broken Bits Repaired Bits Broken Abstract Model Repaired Abstract Model Abstract Repair Automatically Generated Concrete Repair Model Translation 1 2 Consistency Constraints 4 3 Model Definition Rules 5 Consistency Check 6

23. Goal-Directed Reasoning Translates Abstract Repairs Into Concrete Repairs Abstract repairs add or remove objects (or tuples) to sets (or relations) Goal: find concrete data structure updates with same effect 1)Find model definition rules that construct the relevant set or relation 2)Basic strategy: For removals, appropriately falsify the guards of all these model definition rules. For additions, appropriately satisfy the guard of one of these model definition rules.

24. Goal-Directed Reasoning in Example Abstract Repair: add block 0 to the Bitmap set

25. Goal-Directed Reasoning in Example Abstract Repair: add block 0 to the Bitmap set Model Definition Rules:  i  [0..numentries-1], 0  d.dir[i].firstblock  d.block[d.dir[i].firstblock]  Used  b  Used, 0  b.nextblock   b,d.block[b.nextblock]   Next  b  Used, 0  b.nextblock  d.block[b.nextblock]  Used  b in [0..numblocks-1], d.block[b]  Used  d.block[b]  Free true  d.block[d.blockbitmap]  Bitmap  j  [0..numblocks-1],  b  Bitmap, true =>  BlockStatus

26. Goal-Directed Reasoning in Example Abstract Repair: add block 0 to the Bitmap set Model Definition Rules:  i  [0..numentries-1], 0  d.dir[i].firstblock  d.block[d.dir[i].firstblock]  Used  b  Used, 0  b.nextblock   b,d.block[b.nextblock]   Next  b  Used, 0  b.nextblock  d.block[b.nextblock]  Used  b in [0..numblocks-1], d.block[b]  Used  d.block[b]  Free true  d.block[d.blockbitmap]  Bitmap  j  [0..numblocks-1],  b  Bitmap, true =>  BlockStatus

27. Goal-Directed Reasoning in Example Abstract Repair: add block 0 to the Bitmap set Relevant Model Definition Rule: true  d.block[d.blockbitmap]  Bitmap d.block[d.blockbitmap]=block 0

28. Goal-Directed Reasoning in Example Abstract Repair: add block 0 to the Bitmap set Relevant Model Definition Rule: true  d.block[d.blockbitmap]  Bitmap d.block[d.blockbitmap]=block 0 Data Structure Update: d.blockbitmap = index of block 0 in d.block array

29. Repair in Example Original File System Updated File System intro -52 Directory EntriesDisk Blocks 3 intro 02 Directory EntriesDisk Blocks 3 block bitma p

30. Reasoning at Compile Time Compile specifications into repair algorithms Goal-directed reasoning takes place at compile time Consider possibility that |Bitmap| = 0 Abstract repair Choose a block in Free set Add block to Bitmap set Concrete repair Find relevant model definition rule: true  d.block[d.blockbitmap]  Bitmap Goal-directed reasoning finds following update: d.blockbitmap = index of block in d.block array Check that block is an element of d.block array:  b in [0..numblocks-1], d.block[b]  Used  d.block[b]  Free

31. Multiple Repairs Some broken data structures may require multiple repairs Reconstruct model Reevaluate consistency constraints Perform any required additional repairs

32. Architecture 10111001011 10101011101 10101110110 01011001011 10101011101 10101110110 00011001011 10101011101 10101110110 Broken Bits Repaired Bits Broken Abstract Model Repaired Abstract Model Abstract Repair Automatically Generated Concrete Repair.. Model Translation

33. Model Recomputation BlockStatus 1 Used Free Blocks Bitmap Next 0 true 2 3 false

34. Model Recomputation Re-evaluate constraints, find violations of  u  Used, u.BlockStatus=true and  f  Free, f.BlockStatus=false BlockStatus 1 Used Free Blocks Bitmap Next 0 true 2 3 false

35. Model Recomputation Repair violations of  u  Used, u.BlockStatus=true and  f  Free, f.BlockStatus=false by modifying the BlockStatus relation BlockStatus 1 Used Free Blocks Bitmap Next 0 true 2 3 false

36. Repaired File System block bitma p Repaired File System intro 1011 02 Directory EntriesDisk Blocks 3

37. Acyclic Repair Dependences Questions Isn’t it possible for the repair of one constraint to invalidate another constraint? What about infinite repair loops? What about unsatisfiable specifications? Answer We require specifications to have no cyclic repair dependences between constraints So all repair sequences terminate Repair can fail only because of resource limitations

38. Repair Dependence Graph 2. Add block to Bitmap 4. Satisfy Rule 6 (BlockStatus) 6. Replace with in BlockStatus 1. |Bitmap|=1 5. f.BlockStatus=false 3. d.blockbitmap=indexof(b free ) 7. b.bitmap[j]=false for j=indexof(f) 8. Remove from BlockStatus by removing Bitmap

39. Repair Dependence Graph 2. Add block to Bitmap 4. Satisfy Rule 6 (BlockStatus) 6. Replace with in BlockStatus 1. |Bitmap|=1 5. f.BlockStatus=false 3. d.blockbitmap=indexof(b free ) 7. b.bitmap[j]=false for j=indexof(f) 8. Remove from BlockStatus by removing Bitmap

40. Repair Dependence Graph 2. Add block to Bitmap 4. Satisfy Rule 6 (BlockStatus) 6. Replace with in BlockStatus 1. |Bitmap|=1 5. f.BlockStatus=false 3. d.blockbitmap=indexof(b free ) 7. b.bitmap[j]=false for j=indexof(f)

41. When to Test for Consistency and Repair Persistent data structures Repair can be independent activity, or Repair when data written out or read in Volatile data structures in running program Under programmer control Transaction-based approach Identify transaction start and end Repair at start, end, or both Failure-based approach Wait until program fails Repair and restart from latest safe point

42. Experience We acquired five benchmarks (written in C/C++) AbiWord x86 emulator CTAS (air-traffic control tool) Simplified Linux file system Freeciv interactive game We developed specifications for all five Little development time (days, not weeks) Most of time spent figuring out Freeciv and CTAS Each benchmark has Workload Bug or fault insertion methodology Ran benchmarks with and without repair

43. AbiWord Open-source word processing program Approximately 360,000 lines of C++ code Abiword represents documents using a Piece table Consistency properties: Piece table has a section fragment Piece table has a paragraph fragment Doubly-linked list of fragments is well formed

44. AbiWord Screen Shot

45. Results Workload – import (valid) Microsoft Word document that crashes AbiWord Bug that creates inconsistent documents with text before the section fragment Without repair AbiWord crashes when loading the document With repair AbiWord is able to open and successfully process the document

46. Parallel x86 emulator Parallel x86 emulator for the RAW machine Multi-tile architecture Emulator runs x86 binaries on RAW Contains L2 cache of translated x86 assembly instructions Maintains a constant L2 cache size Consistency property: Computed size of the L2 cache is consistent with its actual size

47. Results Workload – gzip benchmark on x86 emulator Bug that (sometimes) adds the size of a cache item twice when it is inserted Without repair Actual cache size goes to zero x86 emulator crashes With repair Actual cache size is the same as computed size Program runs correctly

48. CTAS Set of air-traffic control tools Traffic management Arrival planning Flow visualization Shortcut planning Deployed in centers around country (Dallas/Ft. Worth, Los Angeles, Denver, Miami, Minneapolis/St. Paul, Atlanta, Oakland) Approximately 1 million lines of C/C++ code

49. CTAS Screen Shot

50. Results Workload – recorded radar feed from DFW Fault insertion Simulate error in flight plan processing Bad airport index in flight plan data structure Without repair System crashes – segmentation fault With repair Aircraft has different origin or destination System continues to execute Anomaly eventually flushed from system

51. Aspects of CTAS Lots of independent subcomputations System processes hundreds of aircraft – problem with one should not affect others Multipurpose system (visualization, arrival planning, shortcuts, …) – problem in one purpose should not affect others Sliding time window: anomalies eventually flushed Rebooting ineffective – system will crash again as soon as it sees the problematic flight plan

52. intro 110 0 1011 directory block inode bitmap block bitmap block inode … inode block disk blocks Simplified Linux File System Some Consistency Properties inode bitmap consistent with inode usage block bitmap consistent with block usage directory entries refer to valid inodes files contain valid blocks only files do not share blocks super block group block

53. Results Workload – write and verify several files Simulated power failure Inode and block bitmap errors Partially initialized directory and inode entries Without repair Incorrect file contents because of inode and disk block sharing With repair Bitmaps repaired preventing illegal sharing, correct file contents

54. POMM OOMP POMM PPMP Terrain Grid City Structures Freeciv Consistency Properties Tiles have valid terrain values Cities are not in the ocean Each city has exactly one reference from the grid O = Ocean P = Plain M = Mountain

55. Freeciv Screen Shot

56. Results Workload – Freeciv software plays against itself Fault insertion – randomly corrupt terrain values Without repair – program crashes (seg fault) With repair Game runs just fine But game plays out differently because of the different terrain values

57. Experience Developing Specifications Specifications small compared to system size Specifications straightforward to develop once you understand consistency properties Potential to omit properties Overhead of understanding data structures

58. Specification Inference Automatically infer specifications using the dynamic invariant detection tool, Daikon Developer simply reviews generated specification Successfully inferred specifications for two of our benchmarks CTAS Freeciv

59. CTAS Specification Inferred specification contained All constraints in the hand-coded specification Additional constraints on the arrival and departure runways Different abstractions in the manually developed and inferred specifications

60. Freeciv Specification Inferred specification is missing properties about city placement (Daikon limitation) Inferred specification contains previously overlooked properties about The continents field of a tile The initial position of the players Similar abstractions in manually-developed and inferred specifications

61. Related Work Hand-coded repair Lucent 5ESS switch IBM MVS operating system Integrity Maintenance in Databases Deriving Production Rules for Constraint Maintenance (Ceri, Widom) Automatic Generation of Production Rules for Integrity Maintenance (Ceri et al) Constraint analysis: A design process for specifying operations on objects (Urban et al) Consistency management with repair actions (Nentwich et al)

62. Related Work Constraint mechanisms in programing languages Kaleidoscope (Lopez) Alphonse (Hoover) Self-stabilizing algorithms (Dijkstra) Log-based recovery for database systems Recovery-oriented computing Microrecovery & Microreboot (Candea,Fox) Undo framework (Brown,Patterson) Specification Languages Alloy (Jackson) UML

63. Future Directions Explore other mechanisms to decouple software systems Data dependences Control dependences More frequent consistency checking Use page protection mechanisms in hardware to incrementally check specifications Static analysis to eliminate unnecessary checks

64. Conclusion Data structure repair exciting way to (potentially) improve reliability Specification-based approach promises to make technique more widely applicable Automatic inference of specifications promises to make developing data structure consistency specifications even easier Moving towards more robust, probabilistic, continuous concept of system behavior

65. Implementation Size of system: 26,200 lines Compiler 20,400 lines of Java code 2,500 lines of parser definitions Runtime - 3,200 lines of C code

66. Time to Check Consistency & Perform Repairs ApplicationTime to Check Consistency(ms) Time to Check and Repair (ms) AbiWord0.060.55 CTAS0.070.15 FreeCiv3.6215.66 File system4.22263.14

67. Lines of Code ApplicationLines of Code AbiWord360,000 x86 emulator65,000 CTAS>1 million FreeCiv73,000 File system700

68. Formalizing Repair Dependences: Repair Dependence Graph Absence of certain classes of cycles implies valid repair schedule Node removal for cycle elimination – may remove conjunct and update nodes Must leave at least one conjunction per constraint Must leave at least one update per abstract repair