1. http://www.adams-institute.ac.uk Ken.Peach@adams-institute.ac.uk Accelerators Ken Peach John Adams Institute for Accelerator Science Charters School 28 th February 2007

2. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20072 Outline Accelerators –Early Accelerators –Accelerators today Science –Particle Physics and Cosmology –Other sciences Society –Medicine Summary & Conclusions

3. http://www.adams-institute.ac.uk Ken.Peach@adams-institute.ac.uk Accelerators

4. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20074 The 1 st Accelerator Experiment? Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642 ) (Probably apocryphal) Leaning Tower of Pisa –Use Leaning Tower of Pisa time to fall independent weight –Result? The Law of Gravity! Galileo Aristotle

5. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20075 Lessons 1.Cost is significant 2.Limit to energy with the same technology 3.Higher energy needs a different approach not more of the “old” method Étienne & Joseph Montgolfier GalileoAristotle

6. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20076 Cockcroft and Walton (UK) Early accelerator From the early days to ISIS@RAL The “Leaning” Cockcroft & Walton

7. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20077 + + - The Linear Accelerator (Linac) + - +

8. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20078 The Linear Accelerator (Linac) - + - + - + - + - + - + - + - + Each voltage step is “modest” Inside a Linac The LEP Linear Injector Linac

9. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 20079 SLAC – The Stanford Linear Accelerator (Centre) 50 GeV electrons and positrons 2.8GHz RF 17MeV/m

10. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200710 Lawrence (US) – the Cyclotron The Chicago Cyclotron Magnet Lawrence’s 1 st cyclotron

11. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200711 The Cyclotron

12. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200712 Lawrence (US) – the Cyclotron The Chicago Cyclotron Magnet Lawrence’s 1 st cyclotron

13. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200713 Mark Oliphant and the Birmingham Synchrotron 1940s, Mark Oliphant designed and built a 1 GeV proton synchrotron at Birmingham (almost) the first working proton synchrotron in the world! (Just beaten by Berkeley) Mark Oliphant 1901-2000 Oliphant also build a 400MeV cyclotron in Birmingham in the late 1930s

14. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200714 CERN in Geneva (& France)

15. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200715 LEP – the Large Electron-Positron Collider The Largest (electron) Synchrotron [so far!]

16. http://www.adams-institute.ac.uk Ken.Peach@adams-institute.ac.uk Science

17. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200717 The equation of the Universe! (after Feynman) We know the equation of the Universe U = 1  U = 0 The trouble is, we have no idea what U is!!!! but … we know a lot about what U contains

18. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200718 How to discover the structure of the Universe 3 basic ways Look at itHeat itSmash it Wavelength Temperature TEnergy E h c/ =kTE=

19. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200719 Remarkable comment All three the same fundamental physics! Uses ‘light’ Uses ‘heat’ TUses ‘probe’ E h c/ =kTE= Photons ‘Photons’        

20. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200720 The Big Bang BIG BANG

21. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200721 LEP – the Large Electron-Positron Collider

22. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200722 ALEPH A detector for LEP Physics © 

23. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200723 Some events ‘evaporating from the vacuum’ Ze+e-Ze+e- Z+-Z+- Z   +  - Z  qq

24. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200724 Some more (complicated) events Z   +  -  Z  qqg Z  4 ‘jets’ ZW+W-ZW+W-

25. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200725 High Precision Frontier Known phenomena studied with high precision may show inconsistencies with theory High Energy Frontier New phenomena (new particles) created when the “usable” energy > mc 2 [×2] Accelerators for particle physics What is needed, and why 2 routes to new knowledge about the fundamental structure of the matter

26. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200726 HiggsBoson HiggsBoson? Force Carriers Z Z boson W W boson  photon g gluon Generations of matter Generations of matter   -neutrino  tau b bottom t top III   -neutrino  muon s strange c charm II e e-neutrino e electron d down up uI Leptons Quarks The experimentalist’s view Each with its own ‘antiparticle’ © Brian Foster Particles and Forces

27. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200727 What remains to be done? The Standard Model is a very good description of the Universe at the particle scale (~2M W ) –But does not explain many things Why so many particles? Why so many forces? What is mass? –Why do particles have the masses they have? How do neutrinos get mass? –Are neutrinos different? How do they fit in? What is Dark Matter? Dark Energy? Why is matter different from antimatter? –(Where did all the antimatter go?) Where does gravity fit in?

28. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200728 The Large Hadron Collider @ CERN 7,000,000,000,000 volt protons colliding head on 40,000,000 times per second protons What Happens?

29. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200729 The Large Hadron Collider @ CERN

30. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200730 LHC machine status

31. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200731 The Large Hadron Collider ATLAS CMS

32. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200732 Status 16 th February 2006

33. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200733 Status 23 rd February 2007

34. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200734 What does the LHC hope to find? 1.The Higgs Boson –Complete the “Standard Model” –Confirm that we “understand” mass But perhaps not ! 2.Find something new –Clues to “Beyond the Standard Model” Towards a “Standard Theory” That Explains as well as Describes –Supersymmetry A new completely type of particle Could explain Dark Matter –Extra Dimensions We lives in 1 time + 3 out of n space dimensions! –The unexpected

35. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200735 The Unexpected protons

36. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200736 After the LHC? –What next? –Need to study the new discoveries –Precision measurements –History shows that –Proton colliders are good at discovery –e + e - colliders are good at precision measurement –Need higher energy than LEP –But synchrotrons at the limit –Synchrotron radiation –  E 4 at fixed radius –i.e. 2  Energy = 16  Power or 16  Radius! –Back to the Linac!!!!

37. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200737 Why an e+e- collider? After Barry Barish  LEP LHC 

38. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200738 A Linear Collider ~30 km!

39. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200739 The heart of the Linear Collider

40. http://www.adams-institute.ac.uk Ken.Peach@adams-institute.ac.uk Other Sciences

41. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200741 Accelerators for other sciences Neutron sources X-ray sources Nuclear Physics Accelerators for other applications Accelerators in Medicine

42. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200742 NIMROD @ RAL & NINA @ Daresbury Built in the 1960s –NIMROD @ RAL 8 GeV proton synchrotron –NINA @ Daresbury 3 GeV electron synchrotron Both closed in the 1970s! –The UK’s accelerators were “@CERN” New projects from their ashes –ISIS @ RAL 800MeV proton synchrotron for a Spallation Neutron Source –SRS @ Daresbury 2GeV Synchrotron Radiation Source } Particle Accelerators for other sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Engineering, Biology, Medicine)

43. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200743 What is a Spallation Neutron Source? High Energy (~1GeV) High Power (~MW) (ISIS – 0.16MW) n n n n n nn n Target Protons

44. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200744 ISIS @ RAL ISIS: 50 Hz 800 MeV 300 µA ISIS @ RAL 600 Experiments/year 1200 Users/year 235 UK Groups

45. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200745 Neutron Scattering (ISIS)

46. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200746 What is Synchrotron Radiation? Motion of a charged particle (an electron) in a magnetic field When ultra-relativistic, emits x-rays tangential to the motion X-ray

47. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200747 SRS @ Daresbury Sir John Walker, Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1997 “for elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)”

48. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200748 Examples of use of Synchrotron Radiation CCLRC/SRD annual report

49. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200749 Diamond & the ISIS 2 nd Target Station

50. http://www.adams-institute.ac.uk Ken.Peach@adams-institute.ac.uk Society Accelerators in Medicine Proton and Heavy Ion Therapy (not discussed: Accelerator Driven Reactors Accelerator Driven Transmutation of radioactive Waste)

51. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200751 Incidence of Cancer in the UK 13.5% probability, all types (except skin cancer) –Around half are associated with specific risks –Statistically, some will be close to sensitive tissue And difficult to treat surgically or chemically Source: Cancer Research UK

52. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200752 The Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology

53. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200753 The Clatterbridge Centre for Oncology Established 1989 –First hospital based proton therapy –>1400 patients with ocular melanoma –First example of 3D computer treatment planning in UK; eye gaze direction used to obtain best approach angle to eye. Unsung success story of British Oncology! After Bleddyn Jones

54. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200754 Why use protons? After Bleddyn Jones

55. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200755 Single field 100 50 2 opposed fields 200 50 3 co-planar fields 30 0 50 PROTONS X-Rays 2 opposed fields 3 co-planar fields Single field 10 0 200 100 Depth % DOSE How does it work? After Bleddyn Jones

56. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200756 X-Rays Protons 30050 60 100 80 150 0 60 Axial view 3 Field techniques After Bleddyn Jones

57. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200757 Many centres world-wide based on information of the Particle Therapy Co-Operative Group (PTCOG)

58. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200758 Hadron Therapy in Chiba (Japan) Stolen from Loma Linda Borrowed from Rob Edgecock

59. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200759 Medical applications of accelerators Oncology –Protons, heavy ions, electrons Why so little interest in the UK? Preparation of radio-nuclides Requires precision control of –Energy –Dose Just like the linear collider (energy, luminosity)

60. Ken PeachJohn Adams Institute28 2 200760 Summary and Conclusions Particle Accelerators are important tools –For Particle Physics (& cosmology) Science [and Society] will benefit –Science understanding the structure of (bio)materials –Society New and better materials New and better drugs New (and better?) therapies and they are fun too!