2. Media effects

3. Laswell’s Model of Mass Communication n Who n Says What n In Which Channel n To Whom n With What Effect

4. Effects Theories n Walter Lippmann: Public Opinion (1922) n We see the world as "pictures in our heads" n Media shape perception of things we have not experienced personally

5. Powerful Effects Theory n Media have immediate, direct influence n Assumes people are passive and absorb media content uncritically & unconditionally n “Hypodermic Needle” model n “Magic Bullet” model

6. Minimalist Effects n Paul Lazarsfeld Erie County study (1940) n Mass media had hardly any direct effect n Personal contact more important than media contact n Media effects mostly indirect

7. Two-step Flow model n Media affect individuals through opinion leaders n Opinion leaders are those who influence others u Clergy, teachers, neighborhood leaders, etc.

8. Status Conferral n Media coverage can create prominence for issues & people Agenda Setting n Maxwell McCombs & Don Shaw n Media tell people what to think about – but not what to think

9. Media can: n Create awareness n Establish priorities n Perpetuate issues n Intramedia effect as well

10. Narcoticizing dysfunction n Media do not energize people into taking action n Media lull people into passivity by overwhelming them with information n People deceive selves into believing they’re involved when they’re actually only informed

11. Cumulative Effects Theory n Media influence is gradual over time n Effect is often powerful Spiral of Silence (Noelle-Neumann) n Vocal majority intimidates others into silence

12. Focus on the audience n 1940s challenge to audience passivity

13. Uses & Gratifications n People choose media that meet their needs & interests Needs such as: n Surveillance n Diversion n Socialization

14. Surveillance n Media provide info about what’s going on n Both news & entertainment

15. Diversion Media as entertainment n Stimulate n Relax n Release

16. Socialization n Mass media can help initiate people into society n And help them fit in n Demonstrate dominant behaviors and norms n “Observational learning”

17. Role modeling n Imitative behavior n Impact can be negative or positive ("prosocial”)

18. Socialization via eavesdropping n Children learn about adult topics by seeing them depicted in media

19. Parasocial interaction n False sense of participating in dialogue n Communication is actually one- way

20. Consistency theory n Individuals exercise control over media’s effects on them n People choose media & messages consistent with their existing views & values Selective: n Exposure n Perception n Retention & Recall

21. Selective Exposure n People choose some media messages over others n People ignore messages that contradict their beliefs

22. Selective Perception n People tend to hear what they want or expect to hear

23. Selective retention & recall n People retain & recollect some media messages and not others

24. Bottom line: n Individuals have a large degree of control over how the mass media affect them

25. War of the Worlds Revisited Why did the Orson Welles broadcast have such a powerful effect on its audience? EarthStation1.com's Radio Sounds Showcase: The 1938 "War of the Worlds" Radio Broadcast Wavs

26. n “Reverence” for radio as a reliable medium n Predisposition to expect bad news n Selective perception n Gullibility fueled by awe of science n WWI memories – gas warfare n Failure of common sense

27. Determining Causality n Correlation means that 2 or more variables coexist n Causality means that one variable causes another n Beware of bad science (studies purporting causality)