1. Nervous Systems
Ch 49

2. The ability of cells to respond to the environment has evolved over billions of years

3. Nervous systems show diverse patterns of organization
Nerve nets.

4. With cephalization come more complex nervous systems.

6. Functional composition of the PNS.
Fig

7. Comparison of Somatic & Autonomic Nervous System

8. Autonomic Nervous System
Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nervous System:
A subdivision of the PNS
Not under conscious control
Work antagonistically
Controlled by medulla oblongata and hypothalamus
Peripheral nervous system that supplies stimulation via motor nerves to smooth and cardiac muscle and to glands

9. Parasympathetic Division
neurotransmitter is norepinephrine, fight or flight
E = exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment
Parasympathetic Division
neurotransmitter is acetylcholine
D = digestion, deification, diuresis (urinating)

11. Development of the neural tube from embryonic ectoderm

12. Embryonic Development

13. Brain Development

14. Fig
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

15. corpus callosum cerebrum thalamus hypothalamus cerebellum pituitary
Pineal gland
hypothalamus
cerebellum
pituitary
Major Regions of the Brain
pons
medulla oblongata
spinal cord

16. Cerebrum Involved with higher brain functions.
Processes sensory information.
Initiates motor functions.
Integrates information.

17. Regions of the cerebrum are specialized for different functions
The cerebrum is divided into frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.

18. Frontal lobe. Parietal lobe. Contains the primary motor cortex.
Contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

19. Fig
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

20. Integrative Function of the Association Areas.
Much of the cerebrum is given over to association areas.
Areas where sensory information is integrated and assessed and motor responses are planned.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

21. The brain exhibits plasticity of function.
For example, infants with intractable epilepsy may have an entire cerebral hemisphere removed.
The remaining hemisphere can provide the function normally provided by both hemispheres.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

22. Lateralization of Brain Function. The left hemisphere.
Specializes in language, math, logic operations, and the processing of serial sequences of information, and visual and auditory details.
Specializes in detailed activities required for motor control.
The right hemisphere.
Specializes in pattern recognition, spatial relationships, nonverbal ideation, emotional processing, and the parallel processing of information.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

23. Max Min Hearing Seeing words Speaking words Generating words
Fig
Max
Hearing
words
Seeing
words
Min
Speaking
words
Generating
words

24. Language and Speech. Broca’s area. Wernicke’s area.
Usually located in the left hemisphere’s frontal lobe
Responsible for speech production.
Wernicke’s area.
Usually located in the right hemisphere’s temporal lobe
Responsible for the comprehension of speech.
Other speech areas are involved generating verbs to match nouns, grouping together related words, etc.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

25. Emotions.
In mammals, the limbic system is composed of the hippocampus, olfactory cortex, inner portions of the cortex’s lobes, and parts of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
Mediates basic emotions (fear, anger), involved in emotional bonding, establishes emotional memory
For example, the amygdala is involved in recognizing the emotional content of facial expression.

26. Short-term memory stored in the frontal lobes.
Memory and Learning.
Short-term memory stored in the frontal lobes.
The establishment of long-term memory involves the hippocampus.
The transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory.
Is enhanced by repetition (remember that when you are preparing for an exam).
Influenced by emotional states mediated by the amygdala.
Influenced by association with previously stored information.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

27. Memorization-type memory can be rapid.
Different types of long-term memories are stored in different regions of the brain.
Memorization-type memory can be rapid.
Primarily involves changes in the strength of existing nerve connections.
Learning of skills and procedures is slower.
Appears to involves cellular mechanisms similar to those involved in brain growth and development.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

28. Brain imaging can show neural activity associated with:
Human Consciousness.
Brain imaging can show neural activity associated with:
Conscious perceptual choice
Unconscious processing
Memory retrieval
Working memory.
Consciousness appears to be a whole-brain phenomenon.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

29. Research on neuron development and neural stem cells may lead to new approaches for treating CNS injuries and diseases
The mammalian PNS has the ability to repair itself, the CNS does not.
Research on nerve cell development and neural stem cells may be the future of treatment for damage to the CNS.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

30. The adult human brain does produce new nerve cells.
Neural Stem Cells.
The adult human brain does produce new nerve cells.
New nerve cells have been found in the hippocampus.
Since mature human brain cells cannot undergo cell division the new cells must have arisen from stem cells.
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

31. Thalamus
Relay center for sensory tracts from the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
Contains centers for sensation of pain, temperature, and touch.
Involved with emotions and alerting or arousal mechanisms.

32. The Reticular System, Arousal, and Sleep.
The reticular activating system (RAS) of the reticular formation.
Regulates sleep and arousal.
Acts as a sensory filter.
Fig
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

33. Sleep and wakefulness produces patterns of electrical activity in the brain that can be recorded as an electroencephalogram (EEG).
Most dreaming occurs during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.
Fig b-d
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

34. Hypothalamus Regulates:
autonomic control center- blood pressure, rate and force of heart contraction, center for emotional response and behavior
body temperature
water balance and thirst
sleep/wake cycles
appetite
sexual arousal
control of endocrine functioning:
Acts on the pituitary gland through the release of neurosecretions.

35. Hypothalamus

36. Pituitary

37. Midbrain Cerebellar peduncles Tectum Superior colliculi
Inferior colliculi
Substantia nigra
Red nuclei
thalamus
Posterior
Tectum
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
Anterior

38. Midbrain
Contains ascending and descending tracts to the cerebrum and thalamus.
Reflex center for eye muscles.
Also involved with processing visual and auditory information (connects head movements with visual and auditory stimuli).

39. Pons
Connects the two halves of the cerebellum.
Regulates breathing.

40. Medulla Oblongata
Composed of nerve tracts to and from the brain (these tracts cross over left to right and right to left)
May be regarded as an extension of the spinal cord
Almost all of the cranial nerves arise from this region

41. Medulla Oblongata
Contains control centers for many subconscious activities
Respiratory rate
Heart rate
Arteriole constriction
Swallowing
Hiccupping
Coughing
Sneezing

42. Cerebellum Controls and coordinates muscular activity.
Important in equilibrium, posture and movement.

43. Cranial Nerves Olfactory- smell Optic- vision
On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Fat Voracious German Viewed A Hop
Olfactory- smell
Optic- vision
Oculomotor- 4 of the 6 extrinsic eye muscles
Trochlear- extrinsic eye muscles
Trigeminal- sensory fibers to the face and motor fibers to the chewing muscles
Abducens- controls eye muscles that turn the eye laterally
Facial- facial expression
Vestibulocochlear- hearing and balance
Glosopharyngeal- tongue and pharynx
Vagus- parasympathetic control of heart, lungs & abdominal organs
Accessory- accessory part of vagus nerve, neck & throat muscles
Hypoglossal- moves muscles under tongue

44. Cranial Nerves Olfactory Optic Oculomotor Trochlear Trigeminal
Abducens
Facial
Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal
Vagus
Accessory
Hypoglossal

45. Degenerative brain diseases
Schizophrenia
Parkinson’s
Alzheimer’s
Huntington’s Chorea MS
Epilepsy

46. Parkinson’s disease Substantia nigra in midbrain Dopamine
- affects brain processes controlling:
movement
balance
walking
emotional response
ability to experience pleasure and pain. 

47. Parkinson’s disease Causes: Genetics
Environmental chemicals (e.g., PCBs)
Thyroid disorders
Repeated head injury
Symptoms of Parkinson's Disease:
resting tremor on one side of the body
generalized slowness of movement (bradykinesia)
stiffness of limbs (rigidity)
gait or balance problems (postural dysfunction). 

48. Parkinson’s disease Treatments: L-dopa Deprenyl
Deep brain stimulation w/electrodes
Fetal tissue

49. Parkinson’s disease
F-Dopa deficiency

50. Alzheimer’s Disease
Results in dementia
5-15% over age 65
50% over age 85
Associated with :
Acetylcholine shortage
Amyloid plaques
Neurofibullary tangles

52. PET Scans