1. Locally Decodable Codes Uri Nadav

2. Contents What is Locally Decodable Code (LDC) ? Constructions Lower Bounds Reduction from Private Information Retrieval (PIR) to LDC

3. Minimum Distance For every x≠y that satisfy d(C(x),C(y)) ≥ δ Error correction problem is solvable for less than δ/2 errors Error Detection problem is solvable for less than δ errors  /2 codeword

4. Error-correction Encoding xC(x) Errors y Decoding ix[i]x[i] Input Codeword Worst case error assumption Corrupted codeword Bit to decodeDecoded bit

5. Query Complexity Number of indices decoder is allowed to read from (corrupted) codeword Decoding can be done with query complexity Ω(|C(x)|) We are interested in constant query complexity

6. Adversarial Model We can view the errors model as an adversary that chooses positions to destroy, and has access to the decoding/encoding scheme (but not to random coins) The adversary is allowed to insert at most  m errors

7. Why not decode in blocks? Adversary is worst case so it can destroy more than δ fraction of some blocks, and less from others. Nice errors: Worst Case: Many errors in the same block

8. Ideal Code C:{0,1} n  m Constant information rate: n/m > c Resilient against constant fraction of errors (linear minimum distance) Efficient Decoding (constant query complexity) No Such Code!

9. Definition of LDC C:{0,1} n  m is a (q, ,  ) locally decodable code if there exists a prob. algorithm A such that:  x  {0,1} n, y   m with distance d(y,C(x))<  m and  i  {1,..,n}, Pr[ A(y,i)=x i ] > ½ +  A reads at most q indices of y (of its choice) The Probability is over the coin tosses of A Queries are not allowed to be adaptive A must be probabilistic if q<  m A has oracle access to y

10. Example: Hadamard Code Hadamard is (2,δ, ½ -2δ) LDC Construction: x1x1 x2x2 xnxn source word codeword Encoding Relative minimum distance ½

11. Example: Hadamard Code Reconstruction codeword x1x1 x2x2 xnxn Decoding source word xixi 2 queries Pick a  R {0,1} n =+ e i =(0,…0,1,0,…,0) the i’ th entry If less than δ fraction of errors, then reconstruction probability is at least 1-2δ reconstruction formula

12. Another Construction… Reconstruction of bit x i,j : 1) A,B 2) A  {i},B 3) A,B  {j} 4) A  {i},B  {j} Probability of 1-4  for correct decoding

13. Generalization… 2 k queries m=2 kn 1/k

14. Smoothly Decodable Code C:{0,1} n  m is a (q,c,  ) smoothly decodable code if there exists a prob. algorithm A such that:  x  {0,1} n and  i  {1,..,n}, Pr[ A(C(x),i)=x i ] > ½ +  A reads at most q indices of C(x) (of its choice) The Probability is over the coin tosses of A Queries are not allowed to be adaptive A has access to a non corrupted codeword  i  {1,..,n} and  j  {1,..,m}, Pr[ A(·,i) reads j ] ≤ c/m The event is: A reads index j of C(x) to reconstruct index i 1 2 3

15. LDC is also Smooth Code Claim: Every (q,δ,ε) LDC is a (q,q/δ,ε) smooth code. Intuition – If the code is resilient against linear number of errors, then no bit of the output can be queried too often (or else adversary will choose it)

16. Proof: LDC is Smooth A - a reconstruction algorithm for (q,δ,ε) LDC S i = {j | Pr[A query j] > q/δm} There are at most q queries, so sum of prob. over j is q, thus |S i | < δm Set of indices read ‘too’ often

17. Proof:LDC is Smooth A’ – uses A as black box, returns whatever A returns as x i A’ gives A oracle access to corrupted codeword C(x)’, return only indices not in S [C(x)’] j = C(x) j otherwise 0 j  S i A reconstructs x i with probability at least 1/2 + ε, because there are at most |S i | < δm errors A’ is a (q,q/δ, ε) Smooth decoding algorithm

18. Proof: LDC is Smooth 000 A A C(x)’ indices that A reads too often C(x) what A gets what A wants indices that A’ fixed arbitrarily

19. Smooth Code is LDC A bit can be reconstructed using q uniformly distributed queries, with ε advantage, when no errors With probability (1-qδ) all the queries are to non-corrupted indices. Remember: Adversary does not know decoding procedure’s random coins

20. Lower Bounds Non existence for q = 1 [KT] Non linear rate for q ≥ 2 [KT] Exponential rate for linear code, q=2 [Goldreich et al] Exponential rate for every code, q=2 [Kerenidis,de Wolf] (using quantum arguments)

21. Information Theory basics Entropy Mutual Information I(x,y) = H(x)-H(x|y) H(x) = -∑Pr[x=i] log(Pr[x=i])

22. Information Theory cont… Entropy of multiple variable is less than the sum of entropies! (equal in case of all variables mutually independent: H(x 1 x 2 …x n ) ≤ ∑ H(x i ) Highest entropy is of a uniformly distributed random variable.

23. IT result from [KT]

24. Proof Combined …

25. Single query (q=1) Claim: If C:{0,1} n  m, is (1,δ,ε) locally decodable then: No such family of codes!

26. Good Index Index j is said to be ‘good’ for i, if Pr[A(C(x),i)=x i |A reads j] > ½ + ε

27. Single query (q=1) There exist at least a single j 1 which is good for i. By definition of LDC Conditional prob. summing over disjoint events

28. Perturbation Vector Def: Perturbation vector Δ j 1,j 2,… takes random values uniformly distributed from ∑, in position j 1,j 2,… and 0 otherwise. 0 0 j1»j1»∑ 0 0 j 2 »∑ 0 Destroys specified indices in most unpredicted way

29. Adding perturbation A resilient Against at least 1 error So, there exists at least one index, j 2 ‘good’ for i. j 2 ≠ j 1, because j 1 can not be good !

30. Single query (q=1) So, There are at least δm indices of The codeword ‘good’ for every i. By pigeonhole principle, there exists an index j’ in {1..m}, ‘good’ for δn indices. A resilientAgainst δm errors

31. Single query (q=1) Think of C(x [1..δn] ) projected on j’ as a function from the δn indices of the input. The range is ∑, and each bit of the input can be reconstructed w.p. ½ + ε. Thus by IT result:

32. Case q≥2 m = Ω(n) q/(q-1) Constant time reconstruction procedures are impossible for codes having constant rate!

33. Case q≥2 Proof Sketch A LDC C is also smooth A q smooth codeword has a small enough subset of indices, that still encodes linear amount of information So, by IT result, m (q-1)/q = Ω(n)

34. Applications? Better locally decodable codes have applications to PIR Applications to the practice of fault- tolerant data storage/transmission?

35. What about Locally Encodable A ‘Respectable Code’ is resilient against Ω(m) fraction of errors. We expect a bit of the encoding to depend on many bits of the encoding Otherwise, there exists a bit which influence less than 1/n fraction of the encoding.

36. Open Issues Adaptive vs Non-Adaptive Queries Closing the gap guess first q-1 answers with succeess probability ∑ q-1

37. Logarithmic number of queries View message as polynomial p:F k ->F of degree d ( F is a field, |F| >> d ) Encode message by evaluating p at all |F| k points To encode n -bits message, can have |F| polynomial in n, and d,k around polylog(n)

38. To reconstruct p(x) Pick a random line in F k passing through x ; evaluate p on d+1 points of the line; by interpolation, find degree- d univariate polynomial that agrees with p on the line Use interpolated polynomial to estimate p(x) Algorithm reads p in d+1 points, each uniformly distributed

39. x x+y x+2y x+(d+1)y

40. Private Information Retrieval (PIR) Query a public database, without revealing the queried record. Example: A broker needs to query NASDAQ database about a stock, but don’t won’t anyone to know he is interested.

41. PIR A k server PIR scheme of one round, for database length n consists of:

42. PIR – definition These function should satisfy:

43. Simple Construction of PIR 2 servers, one round Each server holds bits x 1,…, x n. To request bit i, choose uniformly A subset of [n] Send first server A. Send second server A+{i} (add i to A if it is not there, remove if is there) Server returns Xor of bits in indices of request S in [n]. Xor the answers.

44. Lower Bounds On Communication Complexity To achieve privacy in case of single server, we need n bits message. (not too far from the one round 2 server scheme we suggested).

45. Reduction from PIR to LDC A codeword is a Concatenation of all possible answers from both servers A query procedure is made of 2 queries to the database