1. Prof. John Nestor ECE Department Lafayette College Easton, Pennsylvania 18042 nestorj@lafayette.edu ECE 425 - VLSI Circuit Design Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing Spring 2007

2. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing2 Announcements  Reading  Wolf 1, 2.1-2.3

3. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing3 Where we are...  Last time:  Course overview  VLSI Overview  Today:  CMOS Processing  Discuss Labs 0, 1

4. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing4 Roadmap for the term: major topics  VLSI Overview  CMOS Processing & Fabrication  Components: Transistors, Wires, & Parasitics  Design Rules & Layout  Combinational Circuit Design & Layout  Sequential Circuit Design & Layout  Standard-Cell Design with CAD Tools  Systems Design using Verilog HDL  Design Project: Complete Chip

5. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing5 N Transistor Structure Review

6. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing6 P Transistor Structure Review

7. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing7 Semiconductor Review  Create by doping a pure silicon crystal  Diffuse impurity into crystal lattice  Changes the concentration of carriers Electrons Holes  More doping -> more carriers available  n-type semiconductor (n or n+)  Majority carrier: electrons  Typical impurity: Arsenic (Column V)  p-type semiconductor (p or p+)  Majority carrier: holes  Typical impurity: Boron (Column III) nn+ pp+

8. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing8 Other key working materials  Insulator - Silicon Dioxide (SiO 2 )  Used to insulate transistor gates (thin oxide)  Used to insulate layers of wires (field oxide)  Can be grown on Silicon or Chemically Deposited  Polysilicon - polycrystalline silicon  Key material for transistor gates  Also used for short wires  Added by chemical deposition  Metal - Aluminum (…and more recently Copper)  Used for wires  Multiple layers common  Added by vapor deposition or “sputtering”

9. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing9 CMOS Processing  Wafer Processing  Photolithography  Oxide Growth & Removal  Material Deposition & Removal  Diffusion of Impurities  Putting it all together

10. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing10 A View of the Cleanroom AMD’s Dresden Fab - Source: AMD Corporation www.amd.com

11. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing11 Creating Wafers - Czochralski Method  Start with crucible of molten silicon (≈1425 o C)  Insert crystal seed in melt  Slowly rotate / raise seed to form single crystal boule  After cooling, slice boule into wafers & polish Crucible Molten Silicon

12. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing12 Wafer Structure  Current production: 200mm  Newest technology: 300mm 300mm wafer Image Source: Intel Corporation www.intel.com

13. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing13 Processing Wafers  All dice on wafer processed simultaneously  Each mask has one image for each die  The basic approach:  Add & selectively remove materials Metal - wires Polysilicon - gates Oxide  Selectively diffuse impurities  Photolithography is the key

14. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing14 Photolithography  Coat wafer with photoresist (PR)  Shine UV light through mask to selectively expose PR  Use acid to dissolve exposed PR  Now use exposed areas for  Selective doping  Selective removal of material under exposed PR Wafer Photoresist Mask UV Light

15. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing15 Adding Materials  Add materials on top of silicon  Polysilicon  Metal  Oxide (SiO 2 ) - Insulator  Methods  Chemical deposition  Sputtering (Metal ions)  Oxidation

16. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing16 Oxide (Si0 2 ) - The Key Insulator  Thin Oxide  Add using chemical deposition  Used to form gate insulator & block active areas  Field Oxide (FOX) - formed by oxidation  Wet (H 2 0 at 900 o C - 1000 o C) or Dry (O 2 at 1200 o C)  Used to insulate non-active areas Silicon Wafer SiN / SiO 2 FOX SiO 2 Thin Oxide

17. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing17 Patterning Materials using Photolithography  Add material to wafer  Coat with photoresist  Selectively remove photoresist  Remove exposed material  Remove remaining PR

18. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing18 Diffusion  Introduce dopant via epitaxy or ion implant e.g. Arsenic (N), Boron (P)  Allow dopants to diffuse at high temperature  Block diffusion in selective areas using oxide or PR  Diffusion spreads both vertically, horizontally

19. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing19 CMOS Well Structures  Need to accommodate both N, P transistors  Must implement in separate regions - wellls (tubs)  N-well  P-well  Alternate approach: Silicon on Insulator (SOI) n-well p substrate n well n substrate p well p-well

20. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing20 Detailed View - N-Well Process  Overall chip doped as p substrate, tied to GND  Selected well areas doped n, tied to VDD GndVDD

21. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing21 P substrate CMOS Processing - Creating an Inverter  Substrate  Well  Active Areas  Gates  Diffusion  Insulator  Contacts  Metal wafer n well

22. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing22 P substrate CMOS Mask Layers  Determine placement of layout objects  Color coding specifies layers  Layout objects:  Rectangles  Polygons  Arbitrary shapes  Grid types  Absolute (“micron”)  Scaleable (“lambda”) wafer n well

23. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing23 Mask Generation  Mask Design using Layout Editor  user specifies layout objects on different layers  output: layout file  Pattern Generator  Reads layout file  Generates enlarged master image of each mask layer  Image printed on glass reticle  Step & repeat camera  Reduces & copies reticle image onto mask  One copy for each die on wafer  Note importance of mask alignment

24. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing24 Advanced Fabrication  Advanced Transistor Fabrication  Strained Silicon  Planarization  Copper Interconnect  Low-k dielectric for interconnect  High-k dielectric for transistor gates  Optical problems (and fixes)  Immersion Lithography  Maskless Lithography

25. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing25 Advanced Transistor Fabrication  Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) to separate transistors - trenches filled with oxide by CVD  Lightly Doped Drain/Source followed by deeper doping  Silicon Nitride (SiN) - Spacer  Silicide - refractory metal (e.g. Ti, Pt, W, Ta, Co) to reduce resistance of polysilicion and diffusion STI Silicide Polycide SiN

26. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing26 Strained Silicon  Goal: Reduce resistance in transistor channel  Key idea: slightly “stretch” Si crystal lattice Graphic Source: Intel Graphic Source: IBM

27. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing27 Planarization  Problem: adding multiple layers of metal is difficult over uneven chip structures  Solution: Planarization  Add thick oxide layer over chip  Use Chemical-Mechanical Polishing (CMP) to grind flat P substrate wafer n well

28. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing28 Copper interconnect  Copper is a much better conductor than aluminum  But, it reacts chemically with silicon, oxide  Fabrication of copper wires: “damascene” process  Etch trenches in the surface where wires will be placed  Coat with “secret chemical” (isolates Cu, silicon, oxide)  Coat with layer of copper  Polish wafer to remove copper except in trenches

29. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing29 Alternative Dielectrics  Dielectric constant of SiO 2 : 3.9  Problem: want to minimize coupling capacitance between wires  Solution: “low-k” dielectrics (featured in 130nm and below)  Proposed materials would have approx K=3  But, some of the new materials have been difficult to use  Problem: want to maximize electric field under transistor gates  Solution: “high-k” dielectrics (need for 90nm and below)  Proposed materials would have K>>4

30. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing30 Wiring Examples - Intel Processes Intel 0.25µm Process (Al) 5 Layers - Tungsten Vias Source: Intel Technical Journal 3Q98 Intel 0.13µm Process (Cu) Source: Intel Technical Journal 2Q02 k=3.6 Tungsten Plugs Tungsten Plugs (Poly/diff. only)

31. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing31 Optical Problems  Most photolithography is done using UV with 248nm wavelength  BUT… current geometries interference problems  Fixes:  Optical proximity correction (OPC) - change shapes of layout objects to account for optical errors  Phase-shifting masks  Other light sources: 193nmUV, Extreme UV, X-Rays (Alternative: E-beam lithography)

32. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing32 Optical Proximity Correction  Key idea: “Pre-warp” mask patterns to anticipate and correct diffraction errors Image source: Forbes Magazine www.forbes.com Image source: Synopsys Corporation www.synopsys.com

33. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing33 Example - Phase Shifting Masks  Normal mask - light spreads & overlaps  Phase shifting mask - cancels overlap  Drawback: requires 2 masks per litho. step (Expensive) Graphic source: Numerical Technologies www.numeritech.com

34. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing34 Immersion Lithography  Key idea: immerse light source and mask in a liquid with a higher index of refraction than air  Result: higher resolution (analogy to microscope with oil drop) Graphic source: Nikon

35. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing35 Maskless Lithography  Key idea: instead of shining UV light through mask, expose photoresist directly  E-Beam - use one or more steerable beams of electrons  Micromirror array - steer light to expose PR  Imprint lithography - pattern by direct contact  Intended for low-volume applications

36. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing36 After Fabrication- Testing and Packaging Figure Source: D. Patterson and J. Hennessey, Computer Organization and Design, Morgan Kafumann, 1996

37. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing37 Coming Up:  Transistor Operation  More about Wires & Contacts  Parasitics

38. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing38 Lecture 2 Addendum - Breaking News!  Intel, IBM, Sematech announce 45nm design process (Jan 2007)  Key feature: metal-gate transistors with high-K dielectric  10X reduction gate oxide leakage current  1.2X drive current increase or 5X S-D leakage reduction Image source: EE Times www.eetimes.com

39. ECE 425 Spring 2007Lecture 2 - CMOS Processing39 Bottom Line: Moore’s Law Lives!  Doubled transistor density compared to 65nm  Penryn - Dual Core, 200M Trans.  4-Core, 8-Core chips planned! Intel Penryn (Image source: www.intel.com)