1. Understanding Cross-cultural Management
CHAPTER 18
DEVELOPING INTERCULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS
Concept 18.1: Becoming a competent intercultural communicator

2. Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC)
Defined by Kim (1991) as:
‘…the overall internal ability of an individual to manage key challenging features of intercultural communication: namely cultural differences and unfamiliarity, inter-group posture, and the accompanying experience of stress’
What is needed to engage in this process?
information and actions necessary
the motivation
the skills to actually perform effectively / appropriately

3. A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
The Ethnocentric stages
The Ethnorelative stages
DENIAL
DEFENCE
MINIMIZATION
ACCEPTANCE
ADAPTATION
INTEGRATION
Isolation
Separation
Denigration
Superiority
Reversal
Physical Universalism
Transcendent Universalism
Respect for Behavioural Difference
Respect for Value Difference
Empathy
Pluralism
Contextual Evaluation
Constructive Marginality
Table A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
Source: Bennett (1998), p. 29

4. A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
Concrete experience
Reflective observation
Abstract conceptualization
Active experimentation
Figure Kolb’s learning cycle
Source: Kolb (1984), p. 33 (adapted)

5. The cognitive component of ICC
Knowledge of the people from the other culture(s) involved:
their values, beliefs and expectations, knowledge of the language they use
the communicative strategies they tend to employ
This entails being cognitively flexible:
able to receive and process feedback
able to take a perspective, to differentiate between describing, interpreting and evaluating behaviour.
willing and able to move beyond ethnocentrism

6. The affective component of ICC
Anxiety and uncertainty management theory (Gudykunst, 2002)
If high state of anxiety:
reliance on simplistic information > cannot communicate effectively
unable to explain or predict the attitudes, behaviour or feelings of others
If low anxiety and uncertainty:
may not be motivated to communicate
may predict too eagerly – and inaccurately - the behaviour of others.

7. Mindfulness (Langer,1990) includes:
Entails our thinking about our communication and continually working at changing what we do in order to become more effective
Mindfulness (Langer,1990) includes:
making more categories/distinctions when categorizing others
being aware of more than one perspective
focussing on the process of communication
being mindful of our own behaviour as well as the situation

8. Empathy
One key aspect of the affective component is empathy, defined by Casse (1981, p. 139) as:
‘..the ability to see and understand how other people construct reality’
When interacting with others, we not only listen to what people say but we try to work out what people are actually feeling and thinking
Empathy is the ability to put oneself in the shoes of the other, to try and discern their thoughts behind their words and actions

9. Levels of awareness
A high degree of empathy = a high degree of awareness
Hanvey’s proposed levels of awareness which can be attained during the competence development process
He argues that ‘believability’ is necessary if one group or individual is to accept the other
This believability can be achieved only at levels 3 & 4

10. Levels of awareness LEVEL INFORMATION MODE INTERPRETATION Level I
Awareness of superficial or visible cultural traits -- stereotypes
Tourism, textbooks
Unbelievable, i.e. exotic bizarre
Level II
Awareness of significant and subtle cultural traits that contrast markedly with one’s own
Culture conflict situations
Unbelievable, i.e. frustrating irrational
Level III
Intellectual analysis
Believable, cognitively
Level IV
Awareness of how another culture feels from the standpoint of the insider
Cultural immersion: living the culture
Believable because of subjective familiarity
Table Levels of awareness
Source: Hanvey (1986), p.20

11. The behavioural component of ICC
How the cognitive/affective components are enacted
For Spitsberg (2000), behavioural competence is not the behaviour, but the way it is evaluated:
appropriacy: does the behaviour stroke with norms/expectations of relationship?
effectiveness: does the behaviour achieve ‘valued goals or rewards relative to costs and alternatives’
Behaviour deemed as competent may be accidental or seen as incompetent elsewhere
Competent behaviour must have a clear and appropriate rationale behind the behaviour

12. The ethical component of ICC
Can we make moral judgements across cultures while being aware that moral principles of behaviour can be culture-bound and may vary across cultures?
Gudykunst & Kim (2002) distinguish two approaches:
an analytical one (being committed to a specific view of what morality is) : does not allow ethical judgements
a normative one (i.e. knowing what should be done): allows ethical judgements on behaviour itself and/or on the person(s) displaying the behaviour

13. Normative and analytical approach
If normative approach used, making payments to company officials to ensure that a tender is accepted may well be regarded as unacceptable
If analytical approach taken: those paying gratuities may see it as a ‘necessary evil’ since those expecting gratuities are seen as not knowing any better
Gudykunst and Kim (2002) argue that we should withhold any ethical judgements when interacting with those from another culture until we have clearly described their behaviour and examined various interpretations

14. Geesteland’s ethical strategies
Never assume that a ‘bribe’ of some sort is a prerequisite: show moral courage and say no, citing corporate policy
There may be other, ethical ways of responding to unethical demands, e.g.
making a public donation to a worthy cause
creating jobs locally so that the honour falls on the decision-makers
Such manoeuvres depend on knowledge of how a culture ‘works’ and underlying values

15. Is there a meta-ethic? Is the cross-cultural arena an ‘ethical void’?
When we make ethical judgements, we either use our own cultural standards as a framework of reference or those of the other culture
This means, however, that the ethical premises of one culture are necessarily subordinated to those of another: no meta-ethic to embrace both sets of premises

16. Is there a meta-ethic?
Example of a meta-ethic proposed by Martin, Flores & Nakayama (2001) with three principles:
The humanness principle: respect for all, empathy and identification with others.
The dialogic principle: stresses the centrality of human relationships and mutual support we must give
The principle of speaking ‘with’ and ‘to’ instead of ‘for’ and ‘about’
Key factor: learning to understand oneself and others when engaging with others

17. A third culture?
Casrnir (1999) advocates third-culture building - would allow a shared system of values to emerge.
Cross-cultural encounters are not just a question of trying to achieve outcomes, but also developing standards/methods for achieving those outcomes.
The relationship developed in these encounters could enable a process whereby a third culture emerges.
This is a framework designed to ensure enduring adaptation and survival: shared value systems and increasing interdependence.

18. Building a third culture
Figure A dialogic communication model of third-culture building
Source: Casrnir (1999): 109

19. Conclusion: dynamic cultural interaction
The dialogic nature of third-culture building reflects:
The notion of transcultural competence
reconciling seemingly opposing values
developing a dynamic equilibrium
integrating values through synergy
The dynamic process of intercultural interaction
the cultures are defined through own characteristics
AND through their interaction with each other
The notion of crisis transformation
collaborative dialogue which enables transformations at personal, social and structural level