2. Some definitions Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning in a language Phrase = set of one or more words that go together (from grammar) (e.g., subject clause, verb clause)

3. context Context = words or sounds surrounding the word or sound of interest If we hear, He hit the –all. –Context can help us infer the missing phoneme – could be [b] Invariant features = elements of a phoneme that always stay the same, no matter which word they are in

4. Context (cont.) Context also helps us identify words in speech i.e., surrounding words help us to infer what the words of interest are, and where the “word boundaries” lie Homophones = words that sound the same but have different meanings (e.g., board & bored)

5. reading Fixation = move your eye into a position to receive information from page –Must look directly at a stimulus to get optimal information Light information will fall onto your fovea (optimal processing point in the retina) –Tend to fixate on only a few points per sentence (not on every word) Fixations are correlated with phrases in sentence

6. reading Saccades = rapid movements of the eye from fixation to fixation (less than a 1/10 of a second) Letter perception, then word perception  knowing the meanings of the words But LIVE vs. LIVE –First LIVE (as in to live) –Second one, as in live concert –Must use context to disambiguate meanings

8. More on reading After letter perception, word perception Combines words into phrases Combines phrases into sentences Combine sentences into whole meanings –John went to the store. He bought milk. –INFERENCE: we generate new information beyond what is presented in text or speech

9. inferences Alice pounded in the nail until the board was safely secured. [infer that a hammer was used] [inference of the unstated] John, Larry, and Mary went upstairs. They brought down some items. [infer They = John, Larry, and Mary] [inference of propositional reference] She saw the moon. Vs. She saw a moon. [infer first is Earth’s moon] [inf. of article]

10. Other points Understanding speech or written language requires that you use your long-term knowledge –General knowledge –Knowledge about language (grammar) Speech recognition and reading for adults is automatic –Doesn’t seem to require much attention –Don’t have to think about it much

11. Automaticity of reading YELLOW Stroop Effect demonstrates how reading is automatic for adults

12. Components Goal of speech recognition and reading = get the message (semantics) –Perception of phonemes or letters –Identification of words –Use of syntax/ grammar –Use your prior knowledge (LTM) (e.g., inferences) –Working memory (i.e., STM used in a task) One finding: larger WM = better reader

13. Writing and speech production Starting with the message or idea to be conveyed End result: “utterance” = spoken statement

14. Linear model of speech production Start with the idea Break into sentences Use correct grammar in sentences Pick the words to use Convert all of the words to sounds Speak the sounds (utter them)