1. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 1 EDER 673 Instructional Design (iD) Exploring Different Approaches Together: A conversation between scholars. And We begin exploring learning theories for instruction Date: January 30, 2003 for the Week of Jan 30 to Feb 6, 2003 Eugene G. Kowch Assistant Professor of Educational Technology via Vclass Audio Conference technology in real-time mode

2. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 2 The machines that are first invented to perform any particular movement are always the most complex, and succeeding artists generally discover that, with fewer wheels, with fewer principles of motion, than had originally been employed, the same effects may be more easily produced. The first systems, in the same manner, are always the most complex…. (Adam Smith, ) (Adam Smith, 1741) On design and innovation….

3. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 3 Housekeeping/ Agenda 1.Issues and Trends - Your Topics and Class Viewpoints –Is Behaviorism Dead? –Is Educational Technology Failing / Oversold? –Is Constructivism “The Answer?” to Design? –Is Cognitivism “The Answer?” Is there “An Answer?” –Do you know the difference between InstructionInstruction Instructional DesignInstructional Design Instructional TheoryInstructional Theory Learning TheoryLearning Theory Instructional Design and Educational Technology?Instructional Design and Educational Technology? 2.A preview of learning theories (next week’s reading).

4. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 4 First, A Masters Student Discussion & Presentations: A Leadership Exercise As we exploring (together) different: ET, iD & other perspectives (“isms”) on instruction and instructional design. (selected topics from From Gentry & Csete in Anglin, 1995)

5. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 5 Issues: Student Presentations Issues: JodyIssues: Jody The boundaries of the educational technology field (and ID) will remain poorly drawn.The boundaries of the educational technology field (and ID) will remain poorly drawn. Issues: John / GeneIssues: John / Gene –The curricular core of academic and other programs designed to prepare educational technologists will remain ill defined and inconsistent. Issues: RosemarieIssues: Rosemarie –The bulk of research in the field will continue to be sporadic and diffuse. Issues: AllanIssues: Allan –There will continue to be only limited use of primary criteria for evaluating instructional development process, product or implementation. Issues: CalvinIssues: Calvin –Undesirable side effects of the entrepreneurial practices of individual practitioners of educational technology will continue negatively to affect credibility and effectiveness. Issues: TammyIssues: Tammy –There will continue to be inconsistent support for educational technology from administrators, educators and trainers.

6. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 6 Issues: Student Presentations: Continued: SimonSimon –There will continue to be a division between educational technologists and other educators over the theories of learning to which they adhere. Issues: KarenIssues: Karen –There will continue to be inadequate response to the critics of educational technology. Issues: MichelleIssues: Michelle –Confusion over the definition of and the need for technological literacy will continue. Issues: KennethIssues: Kenneth –The predilection of educational technologists and other educators to reinvent the wheel will not significantly lessen:

7. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 7 Trend: Student Presentations: JenniferJennifer –The creation of technology - based teaching / learning products is based largely upon instructional design and development principles. Trends: SeanTrends: Sean Evaluation has taken on greater importance as the concept of performance technology has been further developed.Evaluation has taken on greater importance as the concept of performance technology has been further developed. Trends: AndrewTrends: Andrew –The number of educational technology case studies is growing and provides general guidance for potential users. Trends: RichardTrends: Richard –Distance education is evident at almost every level in almost every sector. Trends: Leo “The Lion” :-)Trends: Leo “The Lion” :-) –The field of educational technology has more and better information about itself than ever before. Trends: Joanne (ID Spelunker)Trends: Joanne (ID Spelunker) –Computers are pervasive in the schools. Virtually every school in the United States has microcomputers.

8. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 8 Trends Continued: Student Presentations -Trends: Dean (Soccer IS a design metaphor) Telecommunications is the link that is connecting education to the world.Telecommunications is the link that is connecting education to the world. Trends: RayTrends: Ray –The teacher’s role in the teaching and learning process is changing as new technologies are introduced to the classroom. Trends: MichaelTrends: Michael –There is increasing pressure for the schools to consider the adoption of technology while, at the same time, concern is expressed for the impact of technology on children in the society at large. Trends: Simon. …gentle readers.. Simon, a victim of accounting error, was asked to do two topics … 3 Cheers for Simon!!Trends: Simon. …gentle readers.. Simon, a victim of accounting error, was asked to do two topics … 3 Cheers for Simon!! –Professional education of educational technologists has stabilized in size and scope.

9. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 9 Beyond the Trends: Captain James Kirk… Ed tech is being shaped more by external forces than by internal influence of its own professionals.Ed tech is being shaped more by external forces than by internal influence of its own professionals. The causes of traditional media resources has become routine in most elementary classroomsThe causes of traditional media resources has become routine in most elementary classrooms There is little evidence to show that the computer has made major contributions to learning in the classroom.There is little evidence to show that the computer has made major contributions to learning in the classroom. The self contained classroom is the greatest single barrier to the use of educational principles and practices.The self contained classroom is the greatest single barrier to the use of educational principles and practices. The field is shifting from the use of media and technology for enrichment to technology for replacement.The field is shifting from the use of media and technology for enrichment to technology for replacement. Idevelopment is being practiced more in nonschool settings than in schools.Idevelopment is being practiced more in nonschool settings than in schools. Distance education has become an operation analog of ET.Distance education has become an operation analog of ET. Cognitive science provides the best source of theoretical principles that underlie instructional design.Cognitive science provides the best source of theoretical principles that underlie instructional design. Evaluation is valued but infrequently used.Evaluation is valued but infrequently used. Educational Technology continues to be perceived as a field concerned more and more with hardware and software than with learning.Educational Technology continues to be perceived as a field concerned more and more with hardware and software than with learning.

10. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 10 Break in Transmission… PLEASE STAND BY while Gene loads Slide Set 2 for.. A PREVIEW OF LEARNING THEORY

11. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 11 EDER 673 Instructional Design (iD) Part II Introduction to Learning Theories Date: January 30, 2003 Eugene G. Kowch Assistant Professor of Educational Technology via Vclass Audio Conference technology in real-time mode MINIMAL GRAPHICS VERSON After Driscoll, M. P (200). Psychology for Instruction (2nd Ed.). Allyn & Bacon

12. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 12 A conception of the relations among three epistemological traditions (Kowch after Driscoll, 2000) Pragmatism Objectivism Interpretivism Knowledge is negotiated From experience & reason Reality is interpreted through signs, internal and external Reality is internal, relative to a frame Of reference (subjective) Knowledge is constructed through both By interaction socially and internally Reality is external, objective (known) Knowledge is acquired through Experience.

13. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 13 An Advance Organizer for Theories of Learning Environmental Stimuli Observed Behavior Input: Sensory Stimulation Output: Learned Capabilities Behaviorism: The Black Box Metaphor Information Processing:The Computer Metaphor Human Cognitive processes Interactional Models: Social Context Matters Multiple Intelligences Proximal learning Emotional Intelligence S->R

14. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 14 Definitions: Learning : is … a persisting change in performance or performance potential that results from experience and interaction with the world. Learning Theory: …is a set of constructs linking … Results: changes in performance Means: Hypothesized structures and processes responsible for learning Inputs: Resources or experiences that trigger learning.

15. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 15 Radical Behaviorism Radical Behaviorism involves The experimental Analysis of behavior Principles of Behavior Management Skinner Leads to Applications Is most closely Associated with S -> R Performance Anal. & Support Instructional Objectives Behavior Modification

16. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 16 Cognitive Information Processing (Gagne & Briggs ) Cognitive Information Processing Stage theory - processing begins With sensory input Sensory Memory -Visual -auditory Instructional Implications 1.Provide organized instruction 2.Arrange extensive and variable practice 3.Enhance learner’s self-control of information processing Models of Memory Storage Semantic Networks Short-Term Memory (temporary working memory) Rehearsing Chunking Long-Term Memory Encoding Retrieval Feature comparisons Parallel Processing

17. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 17 Gagne & Briggs: We Remember….

18. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 18 Situated Cognition: Living To Learn Situated Cognition Which involves Everyday Cognition Knowledge is Conceived as Lived practices Critical Pedagogy Ecological Approach To Perception Are antecedents to Learning is Participation in communities of practice Implications for instruction and Which leads to Including Cognitive Apprenticeships Anchored Instruction Learning Communities Assessment in-Situ

19. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 19 Cognitive and Knowledge Development A computational model Neo-Piagetian View A new agendaA componential analysis A framework theory approach Alternative Information Processing Approaches Theories of Cognitive Development Piaget’s Genetic Epistemology Evidence Countering Piaget Four Stages of Development Three Developmental Processes Assimilation Accommodation Equilibrium 1. Not all cultures reach formal operations 2. Reasoning is not always consistent within a stage 3. Children learn more in a stage than P thought. 4. Reasoning is domain specific Most established theory Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Biological maturation affects STM operational capacity Children’s thinking is endlessly variable and endlessly changing Intuitive theories develop with experience in specific domains Development is the process of a novice becoming an expert Generalization is primary mechanism of development

20. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 20 Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development Interactional Theories of Development Discovery, Learning and Inquiry Teaching Bruner Vygotsky Enactive Iconic Symbolic Cognitive Growth Three Models of Representing Understanding Culture Vygotsky’s Developmental Method Social Origins of Thinking Implications: Learning pulls development Instruction should be scaffolded in the zone of proximal development Intersubjective interaction is important Mediation through signs Emphasized culture Based in human activity internalization Zone of proximal development (next slide) intersubjectivity influences

21. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 21 Detail from the last slide: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development Developing Capabilities What the child can do With assistance Developing Capabilities Undeveloped Capabilities What the child can do unassisted What the child cannot do yet Zone of Proximal Development (with appropriate instruction in the Zone of Proximal Development, the boundaries of the zone SHIFT).

22. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 22 Biological Bases of Learning & Memory - Chemistry and Physical Science Explanations… Recall our WebCT Discussion Thread “She was born with it ” Conditioning Evolution Cognition Proximate causes Biological Bases of Learning & Memory Cognitive development and the brain Learning, memory and the brain Attention and the brain Neuropsychology Implications of Evolution Humans my be predisposed to certain fears Behaviors for which there is no predisposition to learn may be difficult to overcome Actions associated with decreased fitness in ancestral populations may be difficult to establish Ultimate causes Implications of Neuropsychology Cognitive functions are differentiated The brain is relatively plastic in nature Language may be biologically pre programmed Learning disabilities may have a neurological basis

23. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 23 Recall: The Advance Organizer for Theories of Learning Emotional Intelligence Environmental Stimuli Observed Behavior Input: Sensory Stimulatio n Output: Learned Capabiliti es Behaviorism: The Black Box Metaphor Information Processing:The Computer Metaphor Human Cognitive processes Interactional Models: Social Context Matters Multiple Intelligences Proximal learning Biological Theory Interaction Theories Cognitive Theories Situated Cognition Theories Radical Behaviorist Theories

24. © E. Kowch 2002 iD 24 1.Adieu for this week, EDER 673 Instructional Design (iD) Introduction to Learning Theories Readings for This Week See the Course Web Site: http://www.ucalgary.ca/~ekowch/673/673home.html Bednar et al. In Anglin (1995) (Cognitive) Theory Into Practice Ch. 8 (pp. 100 - 112) Aronson & Briggs (1999). Contributions of Gagne and Briggs to a Prescriptive Model of Instruction. In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional Design Theories and Models - An Overview and Current Status (pp. 75-101). Eugene G. Kowch Assistant Professor of Educational Technology Next Week: Asynchronous Class on WebCT: See Home Page by 7:00 PM MST Feb 6th. http://www.ucalgary.ca/~ekowch/673/673home.html