1. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc.12-1 A Framework for Marketing Management Chapter 12 Developing Pricing Strategies and Programs

2. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-2 Chapter Questions How do consumers process and evaluate prices? How should a company set prices initially for its offerings? How should a company adapt prices to meet varying circumstances and opportunities? How should a company initiate a price change and respond to a competitor’s price change?

3. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-3 Pricing Headaches Focusing on costs and striving for the industry’s traditional margins. Not revising price often enough to capitalize on market changes. Setting price independently rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy. Not varying price enough for different products, segments, channels, and purchase occasions.

4. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-4 Consumer Psychology and Pricing Reference prices Price-quality inferences Price cues

5. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-5 Steps in Setting Price Policy 1. Select the pricing objective 2. Determine demand 3. Estimate costs 4. Analyze competitors’ costs, prices, and offers 5. Select a pricing method 6. Select the final price

6. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-6 Step 1: Selecting the Pricing Objective Survival Maximum current profit Maximum market share Maximum market skimming Product-quality leadership

7. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-7 Step 2: Determining Demand Price sensitivity Estimating demand curves  Survey consumers  Set different prices in similar territories  Statistical analysis of past prices, quantities sold, and other factors Price elasticity of demand  Inelastic—small change in demand with small change in price.  Elastic—considerable change in demand with small change in price.

8. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-8 Step 3: Estimating Costs Types of costs:  Fixed costs—don’t vary with production or sales revenue.  Variable costs—vary directly with the level of production.  Total costs—sum of the fixed and variable costs.  Average cost—cost per unit at that level of production; equals total cost divided by production. Experience curve (or learning curve)—decline in average cost with accumulated production experience. Target costing—establish a new product’s desired functions, the price at which it will sell, and the desired profit margin.

9. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-9 Step 4: Analyzing Competitors’ Costs, Prices, and Offers Does the firm offer features not offered by competitors? Given this point of comparison, should the price be higher, lower, or the same?

10. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-10 Step 5: Selecting a Pricing Method The three Cs in selecting a price:  Customers’ demand schedule  Cost function  Competitors’ prices

11. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-11 Price-Setting Methods Markup pricing Target-return pricing Perceived-value pricing Value pricing Going-rate pricing Auction-type pricing

12. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-12 Step 6: Selecting the Final Price Factors to consider:  Impact of other marketing activities  Company pricing policies  Gain-and-risk sharing pricing  Impact of price on other parties

13. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-13 Price-Adaptation Strategies Geographical pricing Price discounts and allowances Promotional pricing Differential pricing Product-mix pricing

14. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-14 Geographical Pricing Company decides how to price its products to different customers in different locations and countries. Countertrade:  Barter  Compensation deal  Buyback arrangement  Offset

15. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-15 Price Discounts and Allowances Discounts—price reductions  Cash  Quantity  Functional  Seasonal Allowance—extra payment

16. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-16 Promotional Pricing Loss-leader pricing Special-event pricing Cash rebates Low-interest financing Longer payment terms Warranties and service contracts Psychological discounting

17. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-17 Differentiated Pricing Customer-segment pricing Product-form pricing Image pricing Channel pricing Location pricing Time pricing

18. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-18 Product-Mix Pricing Product-line Optional-feature Captive-product Two-part By-product Product-bundling

19. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-19 Traps of Price-Cutting Customers assume quality is low. A low price buys market share but not loyalty. Higher-priced competitors match the lower prices but have longer staying power because of deeper cash reserves. Trigger a price war.

20. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-20 Increasing Prices Delayed quotation pricing Escalator clauses Unbundling Reduction of discounts

21. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-21 Responding to Low-Cost Rivals Increase differentiation of your products Intensify differentiation by offering more benefits Set up a low-cost business

22. Copyright 2009, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 12-22 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall