1. Personality and Sport Performance September 3, 2002

2. Definitions “The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him/her unique” (Hollander, 1971) Collection of traits; consistent Construct of personality (Hollander, 1971; Martens, 1975)

3. Structure of personality Psychological core Typical responses Role-related behaviors All are influenced by the social environment –Role-related behaviors most influenced by environment

4. Psychological Core Indicative of what the person is “really” like Basic attitudes, values, etc. Centerpiece of personality Most difficult to change We would want to understand this to make any further assumptions about a person

5. Typical Responses Usual manner in which we respond to different environmental situations Frustration, anxiety, humor, etc. We use a person’s typical responses to determine their psychological core May be based on one-time response

6. Role-Related Behavior Most superficial aspect of personalities Engage in these behaviors to fit the environment we perceive As our perceptions change, our superficial behaviors change Not a good indicator of a person’s psychological core

7. Problems with Personality Structure What is influence of underlying personality? If a person can act so differently based on situation, how much influence does personality really have?

8. Theories of Personality Hippocratic/physiological Psychodynamic Social Learning Trait Theories Interactionist

9. Hippocrates/Physiological Hippocrates (400 B.C.) –personalities based on 4 bodily humors (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm) Phrenology –Bumps on skull Physiognomy –What animal does the face most closely resemble?

10. Psychodynamic Freud was the most renowned psychodynamic theorist Free association Personality explained through three components –Id –Ego –Superego

11. Components of Personality Id –Irrational; operates from “pleasure principle” –Usually sexual or aggressive instincts Ego –Logical, reality-oriented Superego –Conscience, internalized moral standards

12. Defense Mechanisms for Ego If too much conflict exists between the three parts of the personality, ego may have to “defend itself” Repression Rationalization Projection Displacement

13. Social Learning Human behavior is a function of social learning and the strength of the situation Behave as we learned how Effect of personality traits should be minimal Based on stimulus-response theory Stimulus-->organism-->response

14. Social Learning Two primary mechanisms through which individuals learn socially: –Modeling –Social reinforcement

15. Modeling Bandura’s social learning theory (1963) Imitative behavior/vicarious learning Vicarious learning requires: –An observer –Actor who serves as the model for the behavior –Modeling cues (components of model’s behavior) Bobo Doll Study (1965) Examples in sport (LLWS, etc.)

16. Social Reinforcement Rewarded behaviors are more likely to be repeated Verbal/nonverbal communication may affect response Positive reinforcement (give a positive) Negative reinforcement (remove a negative) Punishment (apply a negative)

17. Trait Theories How do people with varying degrees of traits tend to behave? Traits = relatively stable characteristics exhibited over time & across situation Typically generalizable & used to predict behavior in a variety of situations Convergence indicates expression of a trait (shyness, anxiety, etc.)

18. Trait Theories States = Feelings and thoughts related to a particular time and/or situation Anxious before competition Trait theories widely researched, but generally criticized Mischel (1968) argued people do not behave as predictably as trait theorists suggest--situations influence Traits do play some role (and predispose for states)

19. Interactionist Theory Person and environment both interact to create human behavior Personality is exerted in some places and not in others (e.g., hockey player) Behavior expectancies are significant, but stresses individual differences (how much does an individual value a reward) Recognizes potential influence of personality & situation

20. Assessing Personality Three major techniques for assessment Sometimes linked with specific theories: –Rating scales –Unstructured projective tests –Questionnaires

21. Rating Scales Use of a judge to observe individual in some situation Checklist or scale (maximum objectivity) Interview or observation of performance If performed properly (well-trained & systematic), can be reliable & valid

22. Unstructured Projective Procedures Used to identify traits (or motives) Allow subjects to reveal inner feelings & motives Closely associated with psychoanalytic Rorschach Test (1954), Thematic Apperception Test (1947), Sentence Completion Test (1954)

23. Structured Questionnaires Pencil-and-paper, T/F, Likert-type scales Some designed for abnormal, some normal MMPI (hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, masc.-fem., lying) Cattell 16 PF (introversion-extroversion, anxiety, tough-mindedness, and independence) Athletic Motivation Inventory (leadership, aggression, trust, coachability, etc.)

24. Use in Sport Rating scales & projective procedures not used frequently in sport/exercise Questionnaires (16 PF) used more often to help athletes identify strengths & weaknesses Used to develop intervention strategies & identify athlete belief system regarding their personalities

25. Credulous Vs. Skeptical Two schools of thought Credulous –Personality can be used to predict athletic success Skeptical –Value of personality is minimal