1. Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions Module 3
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2. Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
Description
The Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation
Correlation
Correlation and Causation
Illusory Correlation
Perceiving Order in Random Events

3. Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Evaluating Therapies
Independent and Dependent Variables
Statistical Reasoning
Describing Data
Making Inferences

4. Is language uniquely human?
Descriptive Methods
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
Is language uniquely human?
Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.
Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.
Famous case study: Phineas Gage
OBJECTIVE 3-1| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
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5. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 3-2| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
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6. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

7. False Consensus Effect
Survey
False Consensus Effect
A tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

8. Survey Population – all the cases in a group Random Sampling
From a population, if each member has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, we call that a random sample (unbiased).
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

9. Random Sampling from Population
LO 1.9 Case studies and surveys
INFERENCE
POPULATION
SAMPLE

10. Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic observation – watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.
Major Advantage:
Realistic picture of behavior.
Disadvantages:
Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.
Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect).

11. Naturalistic and laboratory settings
Descriptive Methods
Laboratory observation – watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.
Advantages:
Control over environment.
Allows use of specialized equipment.
Disadvantage:
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior.
Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses.
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12. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 3-4| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Psychology 7e in Modules

13. Finding Relationships
Correlational technique
Correlation coefficient ranges from 0 to 1.00
Closer to 1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables.
No correlation = 0.0.
Perfect correlation = OR
Positive correlation – variables are related in the same direction.
As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases.
Negative correlation – variables are related in opposite direction.
As one increases, the other decreases.
CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!!
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14. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points generated by values of two variables.

15. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, and the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

16. Data showing height and temperament in people.

17. Scatterplot
Scatterplot showing relationship between height and temperament in people with a moderate positive correlation of

18. LO 1.10 Correlational technique
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19. LO 1.10 Correlational technique
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20. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 3-5| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
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21. Correlation does NOT prove causation
LO Correlational technique
Correlation does NOT prove causation
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22. Correlation Coefficient Interpretation
Range
Strength of
Relationship
Very Low
Low
Moderate
High Moderate
High
Very High

23. Disconfirming evidence
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do not
adopt
Adopt
Do not conceive
Conceive
OBJECTIVE 3-6| Describe how people form illusory correlations.
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
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24. Order in Random Events
Given large number of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle
OBJECTIVE 3-7| Explain the human tendency to perceive order in random events.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
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25. Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect
The backbone of research in psychology.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
OBJECTIVE 3-8| Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect.
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26. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us while keeping other factors under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

27. The Experiment
Experimental approach and terms
Operational definition - definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.
Independent variable (IV) - variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.
Dependent variable (DV) - variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment.
Definition: Aggressive play
IV: Violent TV
DV: Aggressive play

28. For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence
For example, to study the effect of breast feeding on intelligence. Breast feeding is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 3-9| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
For example, the effect of breast feeding on intelligence - intelligence is the dependent variable.
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29. Double-blind Procedure
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies it is important to keep the patients and experimenter’s assistants blind to which patients got real treatment and which placebo.
OBJECTIVE 3-10| Explain why random assignment and double-blind procedure build confidence in research findings.
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30. Evaluating Therapies Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo.
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31. Random Assignment Experimental Group Test for Differences SAMPLE
LO Experimental approach and terms
Experimental Group
Test for Differences
SAMPLE
Control Group
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32. Confounding Variables
LO Experimental approach and terms
Effect of violent tv on aggression
Experimental Group
SAMPLE
Are differences due to manipulation or confounding variable (mood)?
Control Group
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33. No Confounding Variables
LO Experimental approach and terms
Effect of violent tv on aggression
Experimental Group
SAMPLE
Differences due to manipulation, not an extraneous variable because mood randomly determined.
Control Group
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34. LO 1.11 Experimental approach and terms
The Experiment
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35. A summary of steps during experimentation.

36. Below is a comparison of different research methods.