1. GV551-week 18 Peacekeeping operations 1. Definitions 2. Types 3. Record of UN peacekeeping operations

2. Haiti (1994) First time that SC declared a coup against a democratically elected government threat to peace- right to intervene First time that SC declared a coup against a democratically elected government threat to peace- right to intervene First intervention after Somalia (Somalian effect) First intervention after Somalia (Somalian effect) Multiple failed mediations by foreign ministers, OAS envoys (ch. 15), UN envoy, and presidential envoys Multiple failed mediations by foreign ministers, OAS envoys (ch. 15), UN envoy, and presidential envoys Difficulty to combine diplomacy and force (humanitarian goals not national interest) although necessary Difficulty to combine diplomacy and force (humanitarian goals not national interest) although necessary Unique model of mediation before the intervention: a former President, a Senator, and G. Powell (threat of enforcement) Unique model of mediation before the intervention: a former President, a Senator, and G. Powell (threat of enforcement)

3. Lessons to be learned from Haiti (1994) Addressing images of the enemy Addressing images of the enemy Good mediators are able to listen and empathize with both sides Good mediators are able to listen and empathize with both sides Autonomy and strength of mediators: positive or negative? Autonomy and strength of mediators: positive or negative? Deadlines dangerous but necessary Deadlines dangerous but necessary Once the major point has been reached then relax allowing for the other side to save face Once the major point has been reached then relax allowing for the other side to save face Symbolic concessions to seal the agreement Symbolic concessions to seal the agreement Having an exit strategy Having an exit strategy Critical distinction between use of force and threat of force Critical distinction between use of force and threat of force

4. Definitions of peacekeeping Peacekeeping: observe a truce/cease-fire/keep parties apart Peacekeeping: observe a truce/cease-fire/keep parties apart –Method to manage conflict (first attempts under the League of Nations) –Often as a term is used to encompass military action against an aggressor: e.g. Korean war and first Gulf war –Peacekeeping combines elements of collective security and observation Characteristics of peacekeeping: Characteristics of peacekeeping: –Nonenforcement—noncoercive –Occupation but as an interposition between fighting parties –Limited military capability (light armaments—partly due to necessity)---strictly self-defence and deterrent threat in case of demilitarisation and patrolling –Neutrality »Nonaligned states (e.f. Sweden, Pakistan, India, Fiji) »Issue of major powers (Cold War) –Permission of Host Countries –Ad hoc organizations under the UN auspices and certified by UN Security Council

5. Peace making and peacebuilding Peace making: bringing hostile parties to an agreement through peaceful means: mediation, adjudication Peace making: bringing hostile parties to an agreement through peaceful means: mediation, adjudication Peace enforcement: authorized act with or without the consent of the involved parties, mandated, and authorized by the Security Council—heavily armed and under the UN secretary-general (e.g. East Slavonia 1996, Sierra Leone 2000 (UK), Liberia (US)) Peace enforcement: authorized act with or without the consent of the involved parties, mandated, and authorized by the Security Council—heavily armed and under the UN secretary-general (e.g. East Slavonia 1996, Sierra Leone 2000 (UK), Liberia (US)) Peacebuilding (Haiti, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Kosovo…): developing social, economic, and political structure and institutions to avoid conflict in the future Peacebuilding (Haiti, East Timor, Sierra Leone, Kosovo…): developing social, economic, and political structure and institutions to avoid conflict in the future

6. Types of peacekeeping operations (PKOs) 6 types depending on degree of involvement and the freedom to use force 6 types depending on degree of involvement and the freedom to use force From conflict management to conflict resolution From conflict management to conflict resolution –Types 1 & 2: traditional peacekeeping (neutrality et al: Cyprus, Kashmir 1948, Golan Heights) –Types 3 & 5: incorporate elements of peacebuilding, such as decommissioning (Guatemala, Sierra Leone, Kosovo), training of police forces, monitoring and organization of elections (Cambodia, East Timor/OSCE in Eurasia) »Type 5: enforcement issues –Preventive development of UN troops (FYMacedonia) (Article 1) –Type 6; full fledged peacebuilding (Haiti) Problems of preventive UN operations Problems of preventive UN operations –Developing countries’ fears of intrusion and loss of sovereignty –Selectivity of missions –Loss of funds from other projects –Issue of timing: when is prevention appropriate?

7. Differences between peacekeeping and peacebuilding Peacekeeping is operational, technical and focuses on quick results; peacebuilding is based on long-term planning and strategic management, and seeks sustainable outcomes. Peacekeeping requires direct and outside intervention; peacebuilding develops local capacity. Peacekeeping is guided by impartiality and equidistance from contending parties; peacebuilding requires an in- depth understanding of the socio-political situation, is participatory and actively engages local stakeholders. Example Haiti:

8. Origin of PKOs Boxer wars in China (1900) Boxer wars in China (1900) The creation of the League of Nations The creation of the League of Nations –Concept of collective security »No direct reference to peacekeeping but authorization to League of Nations to take action to safeguard peace –Problems: »The role of great powers »Lack of enforcement Japanese attack against China (1931)—fact finding mission Japanese attack against China (1931)—fact finding mission Abyssinian crisis (1935) Abyssinian crisis (1935) »Lack of interest in remote conflicts (the case of Czechoslovakia (1938)) »What is an aggressor?

9. The United Nations Purpose: provide and international structure through which states can settle conflicts with the least possible use of force Purpose: provide and international structure through which states can settle conflicts with the least possible use of force Chapters 6 & 7 Chapters 6 & 7 Korean war and the movement of non-aligned countries Korean war and the movement of non-aligned countries Resolution 998 and Suez Canal Crisis (1956): beginnings of PKOs Resolution 998 and Suez Canal Crisis (1956): beginnings of PKOs 1960-1964: Congp (ONUC) 1960-1964: Congp (ONUC) –To ensure the withdrawal of Belgian forces from the Republic of the Congo –to assist the Government in maintaining law and order –to provide technical assistance –UNUC was authorized to use force –By resolution 169 (1961) of 24 November 1961, the Council authorized the Secretary- General "to take vigorous action, including the use of the requisite measure of force, if necessary, for the immediate apprehension, detention pending legal action and/or deportation of all foreign military and paramilitary personnel and political advisers not under United Nations Command, and mercenaries", as laid down in Council’s resolution 161 (1961). resolution 169 (1961) resolution 161 (1961).resolution 169 (1961) resolution 161 (1961). Early 1990s: An Agenda for Peace (Boutros Boutros-Ghali): more ambitious role of the UN Early 1990s: An Agenda for Peace (Boutros Boutros-Ghali): more ambitious role of the UN –Second and third generation PKOs