1. Modern Physics 6a – Intro to Quantum Mechanics Physical Systems, Thursday 15 Feb. 2007, EJZ Plan for our last four weeks: week 6 (today), Ch.6.1-3: Schrödinger Eqn in 1D, square wells week 7, Ch.6.4-6: Expectation values, operators, quantum harmonic oscillator, applications week 8, Ch.7.1-3: Schrödinger Eqn in 3D, Hydrogen atom week 9, Ch.7.4-8: Spin and angular momentum, applications

2. Outline – Intro to QM How to predict a system’s behavior? Schrödinger equation, energy & momentum operators Wavefunctions, probability, measurements Uncertainty principle, particle-wave duality Applications

3. How can we describe a system and predict its evolution? Classical mechanics: Force completely describes a system: Use F=ma = m dp/dt to find x(t) and v(t). Quantum mechanics: Wavefunction  completely describes a QM system

4. Energy and momentum operators From deBroglie wavelength, construct a differential operator for momentum: Similarly, from uncertainty principle, construct energy operator:

5. Energy conservation  Schroedinger eqn. E = T + V E  = T  + V  where  is the wavefunction and operators depend on x, t, and momentum: Solve the Schroedinger eqn. to find the wavefunction, and you know *everything* possible about your QM system.

6. Schrödinger Eqn We saw that quantum mechanical systems can be described by wave functions Ψ. A general wave equation takes the form: Ψ(x,t) = A[cos(kx-ωt) + i sin(kx-ωt)] = e i(kx-ωt) Substitute this into the Schrodinger equation to see if it satisfies energy conservation.

7. Derivation of Schrödinger Equation

8. Wave function and probability Probability that a measurement of the system will yield a result between x1 and x2 is

9. Measurement collapses the wave function This does not mean that the system was at X before the measurement - it is not meaningful to say it was localized at all before the measurement. Immediately after the measurement, the system is still at X. Time-dependent Schrödinger eqn describes evolution of  after a measurement.

10. Exercises in probability: qualitative

11. Exercises in probability: quantitative 1. Probability that an individual selected at random has age=15? 2. Most probable age? 3. Median? 4. Average = expectation value of repeated measurements of many identically prepared system: 5. Average of squares of ages = 6. Standard deviation  will give us uncertainty principle...

12. Exercises in probability: uncertainty Standard deviation  can be found from the deviation from the average: But the average deviation vanishes: So calculate the average of the square of the deviation: Exercise: show that it is valid to calculate  more easily by: HW: Find these quantities for the exercise above.

13. Expectation values Most likely outcome of a measurement of position, for a system (or particle) in state  :

14. Uncertainty principle Position is well-defined for a pulse with ill-defined wavelength. Spread in position measurements =  x Momentum is well-defined for a wave with precise . By its nature, a wave is not localized in space. Spread in momentum measurements =  p We saw last week that

15. Particles and Waves Light interferes and diffracts - but so do electrons! e.g. in Ni crystal Electrons scatter like little billiard balls - but so does light! in the photoelectric effect

16. Applications of Quantum mechanics Sign up for your Minilectures in Ch.7 Blackbody radiation: resolve ultraviolet catastrophe, measure star temperatures Photoelectric effect: particle detectors and signal amplifiers Bohr atom: predict and understand H-like spectra and energies Structure and behavior of solids, including semiconductors Scanning tunneling microscope Zeeman effect: measure magnetic fields of stars from light Electron spin: Pauli exclusion principle Lasers, NMR, nuclear and particle physics, and much more...

17. Part 2: Stationary states and wells Stationary states Infinite square well Finite square well Next week: quantum harmonic oscillator Blackbody

18. Stationary states If evolving wavefunction  (x,t) =  (x) f(t) can be separated, then the time-dependent term satisfies Everyone solve for f(t)= Separable solutions are stationary states...

19. Separable solutions: (1) are stationary states, because * probability density is independent of time [2.7] * therefore, expectation values do not change (2) have definite total energy, since the Hamiltonian is sharply localized: [2.13] (3)  i = eigenfunctions corresponding to each allowed energy eigenvalue E i. General solution to SE is [2.14]

20. Show that stationary states are separable: Guess that SE has separable solutions  (x,t) =  (x) f(t) sub into SE=Schrodinger Eqn Divide by  (x) f(t) : LHS(t) = RHS(x) = constant=E. Now solve each side: You already found solution to LHS: f(t)=_________ RHS solution depends on the form of the potential V(x).

21. Now solve for  (x) for various V(x) Strategy: * draw a diagram * write down boundary conditions (BC) * think about what form of  (x) will fit the potential * find the wavenumbers k n =2  * find the allowed energies E n * sub k into  (x) and normalize to find the amplitude A * Now you know everything about a QM system in this potential, and you can calculate for any expectation value

22. Infinite square well: V(0<x<L) = 0, V=  outside What is probability of finding particle outside? Inside: SE becomes * Solve this simple diffeq, using E=p 2 /2m, *  (x) =A sin kx + B cos kx: apply BC to find A and B * Draw wavefunctions, find wavenumbers: k n L=  n  * find the allowed energies: * sub k into  (x) and normalize: * Finally, the wavefunction is

23. Square well: homework Repeat the process above, but center the infinite square well of width L about the point x=0. Preview: discuss similarities and differences Infinite square well application: Ex.6-2 Electron in a wire (p.256)

24. Finite square well: V=0 inside, V 0 outside

25. Everywhere: Ψ, Ψ’, Ψ’’continuous Outside: Ψ → 0, Ψ’’ ~ Ψ because E<V 0 (bound) Inside: Ψ’’ ~ - Ψ because V=0 (V-E < 0)

26. Which of these states are allowed? Outside: Ψ → 0, Ψ’’ ~ Ψ because E<V 0 (bound) Inside: Ψ’’ ~ - Ψ because V=0 (V-E < 0)

27. BC: Ψ is NOT zero at the edges, so wavefunction can spill out of potential Wide deep well has many, but finite, states Shallow, narrow well has at least one bound state Finite square well:

28. Summary: Time-independent Schrodinger equation has stationary states  (x) k,  (x), and E depend on V(x) (shape & BC) wavefunctions oscillate as e i  t wavefunctions can spill out of potential wells and tunnel through barriers