1. CHEMISTRY 101 Dr. Anvarhusein A. Isab Sections 15, 16, 17
Textbook: Zumdahl, 7th Edition
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2. Students Responsibilities
Read and Study every detail in textbook.
Use the CD-ROM and internet educational tools provided by Zumdahl and others.
Search for other sources of information: other textbooks and references, internet, etc.
Solve and submit homeworks on time.
Homeworks are NOT enough to get a good grade, students should solve all the problems they can and also old exams.
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Instructor’s Role
To summarize important points of each chapter.
Give directions on how and where to find information.
Solve typical problems and give quizzes during recitation.
Answer your questions during office hours.
In summary, I am a facilitator and NOT a teacher that will feed information in your brains. You are responsible now for your life.
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Chapter 1
Chemical Foundations
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5. Steps in the Scientific Method
1. Observations
 quantitative
 qualitative
2. Formulating hypotheses
 possible explanation for the observation
3. Performing experiments
 gathering new information to decide
whether the hypothesis is valid
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6. Outcomes Over the Long-Term
Theory (Model)
 A set of tested hypotheses that give an
overall explanation of some natural phenomenon.
Natural Law
 The same observation applies to many
different systems
 Example - Law of Conservation of Mass
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Law and Theory
A law summarizes what happens;
A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happens.
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Figure 1.4: The fundamental steps of the scientific method.
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Figure 1.5: The various parts of the scientific method.
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Nature of Measurement
Measurement - quantitative observation consisting of 2 parts
Part 1 - number
Part 2 - scale (unit)
Examples:
20 grams
6.63   Joule seconds
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11. International System (le Système International)
Based on metric system and units derived from metric system.
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12. The Fundamental SI Units
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Figure 1.6: Measurement of volume
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Figure 1.7: Common types of laboratory equipment used to measure liquid volume.
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Figure 1.8: An electronic analytical balance.
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17. Uncertainty in Measurement
A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.
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Figure 1.9: Measurement of volume using a buret. The volume is read at the bottom of the liquid curve (called the meniscus).
20.16ml
20.17ml
20.15ml
20.18ml
±0.01ml
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19. Precision and Accuracy
Accuracy refers to the agreement of a particular value with the true value.
Precision refers to the degree of agreement among several elements of the same quantity.
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Figure 1.10: The results of several dart throws show the difference between precise and accurate.
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Illustrating the difference between “accuracy” and “precision”
Low accuracy, low precision
Low accuracy, high precision
High accuracy, low precision
High accuracy, high precision
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Types of Error
Random Error (Indeterminate Error) - measurement has an equal probability of being high or low.
Systematic Error (Determinate Error) - Occurs in the same direction each time (high or low), often resulting from poor technique.
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23. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Overview
1. Nonzero integers
2. Zeros
 leading zeros
 captive zeros
 trailing zeros
3. Exact numbers
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24. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
3456 has
4 sig figs.
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25. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Zeros
 Leading zeros do not count as
significant figures.
has
3 sig figs.
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26. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Zeros
 Captive zeros always count as
significant figures.
16.07 has
4 sig figs.
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27. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Zeros
 Trailing zeros are significant only
if the number contains a decimal point.
9.300 has
4 sig figs.
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28. Rules for Counting Significant Figures - Details
Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures.
Independent of measuring device:
1 apple, 10 students, 5 cars….
2πr The 2 is exact and 4/3 π r2 the 4 and 3 are exact
From Definition: 1 inch = cm exactly
The 1 and 2.54 do not limit the significant figures
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100. has 3 sig. fig. = 1.00 x 102
100 has 1 sig. fig. = 1 x 102
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Rules For Rounding
In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through to the final result, then round.
If the digit to be removed:
Is less than 5, then no change e.g rounded to 2 sig. fig = 1.3
Is equal or greater than 5, the preceding digit increase by 1 e.g rounded to 2 sig. fig = 1.4
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31. Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Multiplication and Division: # sig figs in the result equals the number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.
6.38  2.0 =
12.76  13 (2 sig figs)
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32. Rules for Significant Figures in Mathematical Operations
Addition and Subtraction: # decimal places in the result equals the number of decimal places in the least precise measurement. =
 18.7 (3 sig figs)
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33. Rules for Counting Significant Figures.
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Dimensional Analysis
Proper use of “unit factors” leads to proper units in your answer:
2.54 cm = 1 inch
1 inch/2.54 cm = 1 Unit factor
What is the length in inch of 2.85 cm pencil
2.85 (cm) x 1 (inch)/2.54(cm) = 2.85/2.54 = 1.12 in
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Dimensional Analysis
Determine which unit conversion factor(s) are needed
Carry units through calculation
If all units cancel except for the desired unit(s), then the problem was solved correctly.
How many mL are in 1.63 L?
1 L = 1000 mL 1L
1000 mL
1.63 L x
= 1630 mL 1L
1000 mL
1.63 L x = L2 mL
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Scientific Notation
The number of atoms in 12 g of carbon:
602,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
6.022 x 1023
The mass of a single carbon atom in grams:
1.99 x 10-23
N x 10n
N is a number
between 1 and 10
n is a positive or
negative integer
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Scientific Notation
move decimal left
move decimal right
n > 0
n < 0
= x 102
= 7.72 x 10-6
Addition or Subtraction
Write each quantity with the same exponent n
Combine N1 and N2
The exponent, n, remains the same
4.31 x x 103 =
4.31 x x 104 =
4.70 x 104
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Temperature
Celsius scale = C
Kelvin scale = K
Fahrenheit scale = F
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Temperature
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41. Figure 1.11: The three major temperature scales.
180/100= 9/5
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42. Copyright©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.TF Tc
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Figure 1.12: Normal body temperature on the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
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Density
Density is the mass of substance per unit
volume of the substance:
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45. Matter: Anything occupying space and having mass.
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46. Classification of Matter
Three States of Matter:
Solid: rigid - fixed volume and shape
Liquid: definite volume but assumes the shape of its container
Gas: no fixed volume or shape - assumes the shape of its container
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Types of Mixtures
Mixtures have variable composition.
A homogeneous mixture is a solution (for example, vinegar)
A heterogeneous mixture is, to the naked eye, clearly not uniform (for example, a bottle of ranch dressing)
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Pure Substances
Can be isolated by separation methods:
 Chromatography
 Filtration
 Distillation
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Figure 1.15a: Paper chromatography of ink. (a) A line of the mixture to be separated is placed at one end of a sheet of porous paper.
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Figure 1.15b: Paper chromatography of ink. (b) The paper acts as a wick to draw up the liquid.
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Figure 1.15c: Paper chromatography of ink. (c) The component with the weakest attraction for the paper travels faster than the components that cling to the paper.
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54. Figure 1.14: Simple laboratory distillation apparatus.
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Compound: A substance with a constant composition that can be broken down into elements by chemical processes.
Element: A substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means.
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56. Figure 1.16: The organization of matter.
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