1. Transitional words and phrases
轉折語氣

2. Contents: Common mistakes Transition signals Paragraph coherence
Appositives

3. Transition signals

4. Three types of Transition signals
1. Sentence Connectors
(transition phrases & conjunctive adverbs)
2. Clause connectors
(coordinating conjunctions & subordinating conjunctions)
3. Others

5. 1. Sentence Connectors (transition phrases & conjunctive adverbs)
Appear in the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.
A coma is needed.
Example:
For example, the Baltic Sea (, for example) in Northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the Rea Sea in the Middle East (, for example).

6. Conjunction Adverbs:
Often used with a semicolon and a comma to join two independent clauses.
Examples:
In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, its net profit declined.
Some English words do not have exact equivalents in other languages; for example, there is no German word for the adjective fair, as in fair play.

7. 2. Clause Connectors
Coordinating conjunctions 對等連接: used with a comma to join two independent clauses and to form a compound sentence. Examples: In a matriarchy, the mother is the head of the family, and all of the children belong to her clan. In warm climate zones, water evaporates, so the concentration of salt is greater.

8. Yet and But: Yet and But an opposite idea is coming.
Yet: preferred when the 2nd clause is an unexpected or surprising contrast to the 1st clause.
But: preferred when the 2 clauses are direct oppositions.
Yet is similar in meaning to nevertheless; but is similar to however.
Examples:
Thomas Edison dropped out of school at age 12, yet he became a famous inventor.
I want to study art, but my parents want me to become an engineer.

9. Subordinating conjunctions 從屬連接
Used to introduce a dependent clause, which is joined to form a complex sentence.
Position: use a comma if the DC comes before the IC; do not use a comma if the DC comes after the IC.
Examples:
Although the company’s sale increased last year, its net profit declined.
The company’s net profit declined last year although its sales increased.

10. 3. Others
Indicating transition: additional (adj.); despite (prep.); examples (n.).
Examples:
An additional reason for the firm’s bankruptcy was the lack of competent management.
Examples of vocabulary differences between British and American English include petrol/gasoline, windscreen/windshield, and lorry/truck.
Despite increased sales, the company’s profit declined last quarter.

11. Common Transition Signals

12. To introduce an opposite idea, and to contrast things
Meaning / function
Sentence connectors
Clause connectors
Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To introduce a similar additional idea
also
besides
furthermore
in addition
moreover
too
and
nor (and not)
another
an additional
To compare things
likewise
similarly
both…and
not only…but also
neither…nor as
just as
as…as
like/alike
just like
similar to
be alike
be similar
To introduce an opposite idea, and to contrast things
however
in contrast
instead
in/by comparison
nevertheless
on the other hand
on the contrary
still
but
yet
although
even though
though
whereas
while
despite
in spite of
compared to/with
be different (from)
be dissimilar
be unlike
differ (from)

13. to introduce an alternative
Meaning / function
Sentence connectors
Clause connectors
Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To introduce an example
For example
For instance
such as
like
an example of
To emphasize
In fact
To explain and restate
Indeed
That is
to introduce an alternative
otherwise or If
unless
To signal chronological order
first, second, then, next…
first of all, now, soon
last, finally
meanwhile
gradually
after that
since then
after as
as soon as
before
since
until
when
while
the first, the second
the next, the last, the final
before lunch
after the war
since 1990
in the year 2008
(any time expression)

14. Meaning / function Sentence connectors Clause connectors Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To indicate order of important
above all
first and foremost
more/most importantly/ significantly
primarily
a more important
the most important
the second most significant
the primary
To introduce a cause or reason
consequently
therefore
for this purpose
for
because
since as
result from
be the result of
due to
because of
the effect of
the consequence of
as a result of
as a consequence of

15. Meaning / function Sentence connectors Clause connectors Others
(adj, verb, prep)
Coordinators
Subordinators
To introduce an effect or result
Accordingly
As a result
As a consequence
Consequently
Hence, thus
Therefore so
result in
cause
have an effect on
affect
the cause of
the reason for
To conclude
All in all
In brief
In conclusion
In short
In summary
In deed
accordingly
It is clear that…
We can see that…
The evidence suggests that…
These examples show that…

16. Paragraph Coherence Coherence: how sentences hold together.
A coherent paragraph does more than simply lay down the facts -- it organizes them, creating a logical argument that makes sense from idea to idea. Coherent paragraphs have a beginning, a middle, and an end. Elements that contribute to coherence, such as transitional devices, linking pronouns, and repetition of key words.

17. Four ways to achieve coherence:
1. Repeating key nouns / key words 2. Using linking pronouns 3. Using transition signals 4. Applying logical order

18. Example
Limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. A high rate of urban population growth has increased the country's needs for housing. A small group of city officials has laid out a new plan to combat the crisis. A solution to the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue here. The housing problem has grown in the last twenty years.
Limited investment in the housing sector makes it practically impossible to allocate sufficient resources for urban dwellers' housing needs. In fact, the problem has grown in the last twenty years. Because a high rate of urban population growth has increased the country's needs for housing, a solution to the housing-shortage problem is a vital policy issue here. A small group of city officials has laid out a new plan to combat the crisis.

19. Why is this paragraph less coherent?

20. Repetition of key nouns
(how many key nouns, pronouns are used?)

21. Use of consistent pronouns: Avoid change of person or change of number
Use of consistent pronouns: Avoid change of person or change of number. (why is it inconsistent?)

22. Transition signals Which paragraph is easier to understand?

23. Appositives 同位語

24. Constructing appositives
Appositives are used principally to expand the meaning of nouns by supplying defining or identifying details about them.
We can construct an appositive from any sentence in which a noun phrase follows the to be verb (is, are, was, were). Eliminate the subject and the verb, insert commas or dashes.
Generally, we position an appositive next to the noun that it identifies, whether that noun is at the beginning or end of a sentence.

25. Examples:
Farmers try to control the poinsettia whitefly by digging up entire fields of infested crops. The poinsettia whitefly is a pesticide-resistant superbug.
(Relative clause)

26. In 1904, a Saint Louis doctor introduced peanut butter as a health food for the elderly. Peanut butter is the favorite food of American children.

27. Appositives can be just as handy for summarizing or generalizing.
Example:
To avoid bankruptcy, some major national
airlines are joining forces with successful
regional airlines, a trend that is likely to
continue.

28. Short summarizing appositives - appositives of one or two words - can produce a striking effect, especially at the end of a sentence.
Half an hour later, the second police diver returned with the same report - nothing.
Incorporated into humanistic programs in our schools is one of the most dehumanizing practice in education – standardized testing.

29. Longer summarizing appositives can fill in important background information.
The “sunbelt” states of the South and West – states that remained rural and backward during the industrialization of our country – have come to dominate the U.S. economy during the technological revolution.
Bloodhounds are friendly and gentle creatures, not the vicious beasts their name would lead you to expect.

30. When we pack appositives into a series, they summarize by listing characteristics:
In Aesop’s fables, the animals that overcome great odds represent qualities we want for ourselves: power, intelligence, thoughtfulness, and honesty.

31. Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns
Whether positive or negative, appositive are normally nouns. Adjectives can be used as appositives, if we move them from their normal position in front of the noun they modify.
My blind date turned out to be an honest, fun-loving, affectionate, and wonderful person.

32. Practice:
1. ____ Stark, forbidding, awesome, spectacular – Death Valley is a hauntingly beautiful place to visit.
2. ____Shanghai is different from other Chinese cities – more European and cosmopolitan.
3. ____ A number of U.S. presidents – including Lincoln, Roosevelt, and Kennedy – have died in office.
4. ____ Appositives are generally set off by commas, dashes, or colons. The different punctuation marks create different effects.

33. Examples:
Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet, a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.
Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet - a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.
Pet owners upset by soaring veterinary costs can now register for Medipet: a pre-paid insurance plan for dogs and cats.

34. More examples:
The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.

35. Web links: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ (普渡大學寫作中心)
(普渡大學寫作中心)
(The Chinese online writing lab – 柯泰德 Ted Knoy)
(廖柏森 英語與翻譯教學 )
(文法寫作指南)
(Common writing problems)