1. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley Starting Out with C++ Early Objects Sixth Edition Chapter 12: More About Characters, Strings, and the string Class by Tony Gaddis, Judy Walters, and Godfrey Muganda

2. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-2 Topics 12.1 C-Strings 12.2 Library Functions for Working with C-Strings 12.3 String/Numeric Conversion Functions 12.4 Character Testing

3. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-3 Topics (continued) 12.5 Character Case Conversion 12.6 Writing Your Own C-String Handling Functions 12.7 More About the C++ string Class 12.8 Creating Your Own String Class

4. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-4 12.1 C-Strings C-string: sequence of characters stored in adjacent memory locations and terminated by NULL character The C-string "Hi there!" would be stored in memory as shown: Hithe re! \0

5. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-5 Representation of C-strings As a string literal " Hi There!" As a const pointer to char const char *p; As an array of characters const char str[20]; All three representations are constant pointers to char

6. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-6 String Literals A string literal is stored as a null-terminated array of char Compiler uses the address of the array as the value of the string String literal is a const pointer to char h i \0 value of “hi” is address of this array

7. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-7 Array of char Array of char can be defined and initialized to a C-string char str1[20] = "hi"; Array of char can be defined and later have a string copied into it char str2[20]= "something"; strcpy(str2, "hi"); –"hi" replaces "something"

8. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-8 Array of char Name of array of char is used as a pointer to char Unlike string literal, a C-string defined as an array can be referred to in other parts of the program by using the array name

9. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-9 Pointer to char Defined as const char *pStr; Does not itself allocate memory Useful in repeatedly referring to C- strings defined as a string literal pStr = "Hi there"; cout << pStr << " " << pStr;

10. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-10 Const Pointer vs. Pointer Many compilers accept this with no warning: char *ptr= "hello"; Chapter 12 of Gaddis is full of these… But – this invites setting chars through the pointer: ptr[0]= 'c'; And this causes a run-time crash! Do this instead: const char *ptr= "hello";

11. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-11 Pointer to char Pointer to char can also refer to C-strings defined as arrays of char char str[20] = "hi"; char *pStr = str; cout << pStr; // prints hi Make sure the pointer points to legitimate memory before using!

12. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-12 12.2 Library Functions for Working with C-Strings Require cstring header file Functions take one or more C-strings as arguments. Argument can be: –Name of an array of char –pointer to char –literal string

13. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-13 Library Functions for Working with C-Strings int strlen(const char *str) Returns length of a C-string: cout << strlen("hello"); Prints: 5

14. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-14 strcat strcat(char *dest, const char *source) Takes two C-strings as input. It adds the contents of the second string to the end of the first string: char str1[30] = "Good "; char str2[15] = "Morning!"; strcat(str1, str2); cout << str1; // prints: Good Morning! No automatic bounds checking: programmer must ensure that str1 has enough room for result

15. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-15 strcpy strcpy(char *dest, const char *source) Copies a string from a source address to a destination address char name[15]; strcpy(name, "Deborah"); cout << name; // prints Deborah

16. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-16 strcmp int strcmp(const char *str1, const char*str2) Compares strings stored at two addresses to determine their relative alphabetic order: Returns a value: less than 0 if str1 precedes str2 equal to 0 if str1 equals str2 greater than 0 if str1 succeeds str2

17. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-17 strcmp Often used to test for equality if(strcmp(str1, str2) == 0) cout << "equal"; else cout << "not equal"; Also used to determine ordering of C-strings in sorting applications Note that C-strings cannot be compared using == (compares addresses of C-strings, not contents)

18. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-18 strstr char *strstr(char *str1, const char *str2) Searches for the occurrence of str2 within str1. Returns a pointer to the occurrence of str2 within str1 if found, and returns NULL otherwise char s[15] = "Abracadabra"; char *found = strstr(s,"dab"); cout << found; // prints dabra

19. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-19 12.3 String/Numeric Conversion Functions These functions convert between string and numeric forms of numbers Need to include cstdlib header file

20. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-20 atoi and atol atoi converts alphanumeric to int atol converts alphanumeric to long int atoi(const char *numericStr) long atol(const char *numericStr) Examples: int number; long lnumber; number = atoi("57"); lnumber = atol("50000");

21. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-21 atof atof converts a numeric string to a floating point number, actually a double double atof(const char *numericStr) Example: double dnumber; dnumber = atof("3.14159");

22. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-22 atoi, atol, atof if C-string being converted contains non- digits, results are undefined –function may return result of conversion up to first non-digit –function may return 0

23. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-23 itoa itoa converts an int to an alphanumeric string Allows user to specify the base of conversion itoa(int num, char *numStr, int base) num : number to convert numStr : array to hold resulting string base : base of conversion

24. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-24 itoa itoa(int num, char *numStr, int base) Example: To convert the number 1200 to a hexadecimal string char numStr[10]; itoa(1200, numStr, 16); The function performs no bounds-checking on the array numStr

25. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-25 12.4 Character Testing require cctype header file FUNCTIONMEANING isalpha true if arg. is a letter, false otherwise isalnum true if arg. is a letter or digit, false otherwise isdigit true if arg. is a digit 0-9, false otherwise islowertrue if arg. is lowercase letter, false otherwise

26. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-26 Character Testing require cctype header file FUNCTIONMEANING isprint true if arg. is a printable character, false otherwise ispuncttrue if arg. is a punctuation character, false otherwise

27. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-27 Character Testing require cctype header file FUNCTIONMEANING isupper true if arg. is an uppercase letter, false otherwise isspacetrue if arg. is a whitespace character, false otherwise

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-28 12.5 Character Case Conversion require cctype header file Functions: –toupper : convert a letter to uppercase equivalent –tolower : convert a letter to lowercase equivalent

29. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-29 toupper toupper : if char argument is lowercase letter, return uppercase equivalent; otherwise, return input unchanged toupper actually takes an integer parameter and returns an integer result. The integers are the ascii codes of the characters

30. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-30 toupper The function toupper will work as follows char greeting[] = "Hello!"; cout << toupper(greeting[0]); //displays 'H' cout << toupper(greeting[1]); //displays 'E' cout << toupper(greeting[5]); //displays '!'

31. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-31 tolower tolower : if char argument is uppercase letter, return lowercase equivalent; otherwise, return input unchanged

32. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-32 tolower The function tolower will work as follows char greeting[] = "Hello!"; cout << tolower(greeting[0]); //displays 'h' cout << tolower(greeting[1]); //displays 'e' cout << tolower(greeting[5]); //displays '!'

33. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-33 12.6 Writing Your Own C-String Handling Functions When writing C-String Handling Functions: –can pass arrays or pointers to char –can perform bounds checking to ensure enough space for results –can anticipate unexpected user input

34. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-34 12.7 More About the C++ string Class The string class offers several advantages over C-style strings: –large body of member functions –overloaded operators to simplify expressions Need to include the string header file

35. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-35 string class constructors Default constructor string() Copy constructor string(const string&) initializes string objects with values of other string objects Convert constructor string(const char *) allows C-strings to be used wherever string class objects are expected Various other constructors

36. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-36 Overloaded string Operators OPERATORMEANING >> reads whitespace-delimited strings into string object << outputs string object to a stream = assigns string on right to string object on left += appends string on right to end of contents of string on left

37. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-37 Overloaded string Operators (continued) OPERATORMEANING + concatenates two strings [] references character in string using array notation >, >=, <, <=, ==, != relational operators for string comparison. Return true or false

38. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-38 Overloaded string Operators string word1, phrase; string word2 = " Dog"; cin >> word1; // user enters "Hot" // word1 has "Hot" phrase = word1 + word2; // phrase has // "Hot Dog" phrase += " on a bun"; for (int i = 0; i < phrase.size(); i++) cout << phrase[i]; // displays // "Hot Dog on a bun"

39. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-39 string Member Functions Categories: –conversion to C-strings: c_str, data –modification: append, assign, clear, copy, erase, insert, replace, swap –space management: capacity, empty, length, resize, size –substrings: find, substr –comparison: compare

40. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-40 Conversion to C-strings data() and c_str() both return the C- string equivalent of a string object Useful when using a string object with a function that is expecting a C-string char greeting[20] = "Have a "; string str("nice day"); strcat(greeting, str.data());

41. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-41 Modification of string objects str.append(string s) appends contents of s to end of str Convert constructor for string allows a C- string to be passed in place of s string str("Have a "); str.append("nice day"); append is overloaded for flexibility

42. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-42 Modification of string objects str.insert(int pos, string s) inserts s at position pos in str Convert constructor for string allows a C- string to be passed in place of s string str("Have a day"); str.insert(7, "nice "); insert is overloaded for flexibility

43. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley 12-43 12.8 Creating Your Own String Class A good way to put OOP skills into practice The class allocates dynamic memory, so has copy constructor, destructor, and overloaded assignment Overloads the stream insertion and extraction operators, and many other operators See MyString source code and HTML file in wbarrett web site

44. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley Starting Out with C++ Early Objects Sixth Edition Chapter 12: More About Characters, Strings, and the string Class by Tony Gaddis, Judy Walters, and Godfrey Muganda