1. Fundamentals of Restoration Ecology

2. Ecological Succession: The key To Restoration Succession is the process of change in ecosystem structure and composition over time. Succession drives ecosystem response to restoration efforts. Restoration, then, is the attempt to initiate and/or direct successional processes.

3. Linear model of Primary Succession H.C. Cowles’ successional stages at the southern end of Lake Michigan Figure from Keeton, W.T. (1980)

4. Models of Succession Relay floristics or “facilitation model” –Facilitative replacement of species –Sequential, directional, somewhat predictable Initial floristics or “tolerance model” –All or most species present at early successional stage –Change in relative abundance over time Intermediary models –Some aspects of facilitation and fluctuations in relative abundance due to competition and environmental modification as a community develops

5. Sere 1 (colonization): Initially by specialist stress-tolerant species able to cope with rudimentary soils and extreme moisture/nutrient availability, e.g. mosses, lichens. Sere 2 (development): Soils improve, organic content increases, productivity increases. Environment less stressful, but still vulnerable to disturbance. Stress-tolerant species replaced by more competitive and productive sere 2 species, which tolerate some disturbance, e.g. grasses and weeds. Sere 3 (mature): soil now developed, soil conditions more stable, nutrient and water system is not stressful. Competitive species predominate(many still short life cycle), e.g. grasses, bushes and shrubs. Productive system with more complex trophic structure and cycling. Sere 4 (climax): relatively stable vegetation community (???), productivity is high and ecosystem structure complex. Often dominated by competitors, which are long-lived species (e.g. trees). Little evidence of initial conditions or stress/disturbance tolerant species (but occur locally: river banks, gaps left by tree-fall). Stable climax may not exist. Primary Succession

6. Grimes (1979) life history strategies for plants Competitive –reduce allocation towards vegetative growth and reproduction. This is not necessary in an environment where there is little interspecific competition. Instead they invest in features that ensure the endurance of mature individuals, i.e. special adaptations in growth form and structure (below ground biomass). Stress-tolerant –maximize the capture of resources in productive but relatively undisturbed habitats. Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinium) is a classic competitor. It has large reserves of energy stored in underground organs that can be mobilized rapidly in the growing season to produce large vegetative canopies. Ruderal –are usually herbs having a short life-span and high seed production. They are found in highly disturbed, but potentially productive environments (e.g trampled but arable ground). Initially, competition is reduced in disturbed environments. Ruderals invest in regenerative phases (e.g. seeds, vegetative propagules or runners, protective growth forms/structures). Many such species are considered to be weeds. Rapid growth and development means that they mature and set seed quickly, which ensures population persistence through subsequent disturbances.  Important for the selection of plants in restoration efforts

7. Figure adapted from Franklin and Spies (1991). Secondary Succession

8. Succession difficult to predict Multiple determinants of early succession Multiple pathways of succession are possible

9. Multiple Pathways of Succession: f (Timing, Type, and Intensity of Disturbances + Masting and Seed Availability) From Hemstrom and Logan (1986), in Spies (1997)

10. Altered Successional Pathways Resulting from a Complex History of Land-use Figure from Foster (1992)

11. Why is an understanding of natural disturbance regimes so important for restoration? Potential for disturbances to impair restoration success Potential for disturbances to facilitate restoration success Desired future condition must be dynamic Mimic the role of biological legacies in post-disturbance ecosystem recovery

12. Natural Disturbance Regimes Type Intensity Frequency Spatial extent and pattern Specificity Synergisms

13. Types of Natural Disturbances

14. Ice Storms

15. Insect and Pathogens Outbreaks

16. Floods

17. Fine-scale Windthrow

18. Large-scale Windthrow: Hurricanes, Tornadoes, etc.

20. Legend Estimated volume of timber blown down Over 10,000 board feet 1,000 to 10,000 board feet < 1,000 board feet Not affected or no report Timber volume blown down by the 1938 hurricane per each township Sources: Figure from Boose et al (1994); Data compiled by the Northeastern Timber Salvage Administration (1943)

21. 1635 (8/25) Great Colonial Hurricane* 1638 (8/3) 1675 (9/7) Second Great Colonial Hurricane 1683 (8/23) Hurricane and Flood of 1683 1713 (8/30) 1727 (9/27) 1743 (11/2) Ben Franklin's Eclipse Hurricane 1749 (10/19) 1761 (10/23-24) Winthrop's Hurricane 1770 (10/20) Stile's Hurricane 1778 (8/12-13) The French Storm 1788 (8/19) Western New England Hurricane 1815 (9/23) The Great September Gale* 1821 (9/3) Redfield's Hurricane (arrived at low tide) 1841 (10/3) The October Gale 1856 (8/21) Charter Oak Storm 1869 (9/8) September Gale of '69 1878 (10/23-24) 1879 (8/18-19) Cape Cod Hurricane of '79 1893 (8/24) 1893 (8/29) passed well-inland 1896 (10/12-13) offshore hurricane 1916 (7/21) excessive rain+all 1924 (8/26) Off-shore Hurricane of '24 1933 (9/17-18) 13.27 inches rain at Provincetown 1936 (9/18-19) 7.79 inches rain at Provincetown 1938 (9/21) Great New England Hurricane* 1944 (9/14-15) Great Atlantic Hurricane* 1950 (9/11-12) Hurricane Dog 1954 (8/31) Carol* 1954 (9/11) Edna* 1954 (9/11) Hazel 1955 (8/17-19) Diane -- extreme floods 1960 (9/12) Donna 1985 (9/27) Gloria 1991 (8/19) Bob Hurricanes in New England

22. Predicted Topographic Susceptibility to Windthrow Figure from Boose et al. (1994)

23. Fire

24. Forest fires happens in New England too!

25. Intensity of Natural Disturbances

26. Low Intensity Low IntensityHigh Intensity Proportion of events

27. Low IntensityHigh Intensity Proportion of events High Intensity

28. Frequency High frequency regimes typically have low average intensity Low frequency regimes typically have high average intensity

29. Think of purposeful disturbance as a tool for restoration High-intensity disturbance = large opening or big area + high mortality  sets back succession Low-intensity disturbance = small gap or area + low mortality  accelerates succession

30. Spatial extent and specificity of disturbances influence ecosystem pattern Mosaic of Patches: Fine-Scale, Dynamic

31. Mosaic of Patches: High Contrast, Dynamic

32. Mosaic of Patches: High Contrast, Stable

33. Mosaic of Patches: Coarse-scale, Dynamic

34. Mosaic of Patches: Anthropogenic disturbances

35. Synergism

36. What are biological legacies? Whole organisms Reproductive structures: seeds, spores, stumps, rhizomes Organically derived structures: snags, logs, SOM, soil aggregates Patterns: organic and inorganic –Microbial distribution –Soil chemistry and inhibition –Community patterns: e.g. gaps and antigaps

37. Implications of biological legacies for restoration

38. Restoration at Mount St. Helens: Passive and Active Approaches Aided by Biological Legacies

42. Biological Legacies of the 1938 Hurricane in MA Biological legacies: organic matter carryover “Lifeboats” organisms above and below-ground

43. Organic matter helps ameliorate post- disturbance stress: soil moisture retention microclimate: shade, windspeed, etc. soil stabilization nutrient cycling

44. Linkages between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems: Bank stabilization organic matter inputs

45. Biological legacies can persist on a site for a long-time; ecological functions change as the structure ages (e.g. decays)

46. How do ecosystems respond to disturbance?

47. Disturbance Ecosystem Structure and Function Time Ecosystem Structure and Function

48. Desired Future Condition Given that ecosystems are dynamics, what should the desired future condition be?

49. Early Successional?

50. Mid Successional?

51. Late-Successional?

52. Reference Condition What should we use as reference condition? –Historic condition – which one? –Reference site: e.g. an extant, ecologically similar but un-degraded site. But which site? What part of it? –Predicted future condition in light of global climate change. Should we take this into consideration? The key is to understand the range of variability. Restore to something within this range.

53. HRV Historical Range of Variability Figure from Aplet and Keeton (1999)

54. HRV Scale: Small Watershed Scale: Drainage Basin Scale: Region Hurricane Hurricanes Source: Aplet and Keeton (1999)

56. Restoration of Native Vegetation: Exotic Organism Control 1.Understand biology (i.e. life history) of the exotic organism 2.Identify critical life history stage What life history traits make organisms successful invasives? 3.Determine possible control practices/techniques What intensity of treatment is acceptable? 4.Map your site  compartmentalize based on exotic species occurrence, density, threat, etc. 5.Develop removal program and schedule

57. Invasive Species Management European Buckthorn

58. Japanese Knotweed

59. Tartatian Honeysuckle Japanese Honeysuckle

60. Using fire to control exotics…

61. Kudzu (Pueraria lobata) is a perennial vine in the legume family Imported from Japan in 1876 to landscape a garden at the Japanese Pavilion at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. In the early 1900's, this vine was discovered to be excellent forage for cows, pigs, and goats in the South in acidic soils and during droughty seasons. It was also promoted as cover for erosion control in gullies. The distribution of kudzu in the United States today extends from Connecticut to Missouri and Oklahoma, south to Texas and Florida. Before 1970, kudzu was planted along Missouri highways to control erosion and some farmers experimented with kudzu for livestock fodder. Kudzu Case Study

62. Kudzu infestation 1. Mechanical and hand removal

63. 3. Prescribed burning then herbicide application 4. Native grasses planted

64. Completed restoration