1. CPSC441: Routing1 Instructor: Anirban Mahanti Office: ICT 745 Email: mahanti@cpsc.ucalgary.ca Class Location: ICT 121 Lectures: MWF 12:00 – 12:50 hours Notes derived from “ Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring the Internet”, 2005, 3 rd edition, Jim Kurose, Keith Ross, Addison-Wesley. Slides are adapted from the companion web site of the book, as modified by Anirban Mahanti (and Carey Williamson). Network Layer: Routing

2. CPSC441: Routing2 Routing Algorithms Link State Distance Vector Hierarchical Routing

3. CPSC441: Routing3 1 2 3 0111 value in arriving packet’s header routing algorithm local forwarding table header value output link 0100 0101 0111 1001 32213221 Interplay between routing and forwarding

4. CPSC441: Routing4 u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5 Graph: G = (N,E) N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z } E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) } Graph abstraction Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

5. CPSC441: Routing5 Graph abstraction: costs u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5 c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’) - e.g., c(w,z) = 5 cost could always be 1, or inversely related to bandwidth, or inversely related to congestion Cost of path (x 1, x 2, x 3,…, x p ) = c(x 1,x 2 ) + c(x 2,x 3 ) + … + c(x p-1,x p ) Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ? Routing algorithm: find “good” paths from source to destination router.

6. CPSC441: Routing6 Routing Algorithm Classification 1. Global, decentralized ? Global: r all routers have complete topology, link cost info r “link state” algorithms Decentralized: r router knows about physically-connected neighbors r Iterative, distributed computations r “distance vector” algorithms 2. Static, dynamic? Static: r routes change slowly over time Dynamic: r routes change more quickly m periodic update m in response to link cost changes 3. Load sensitivity? m Many Internet routing algos are load insensitive

7. CPSC441: Routing7 A Link-State Routing Algorithm Dijkstra’s algorithm r net topology, link costs known to all nodes m accomplished via “link state broadcast” m all nodes have same info r computes least cost paths from one node (‘source”) to all other nodes m gives forwarding table for that node r iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k dest.’s Notation:  c(x,y): link cost from node x to y; = ∞ if not direct neighbors  D(v): current value of cost of path from source to dest. v  p(v): predecessor node along path from source to v  N': set of nodes whose least cost path definitively known

8. CPSC441: Routing8 Dijsktra’s Algorithm 1 Initialization: 2 N' = {u} 3 for all nodes v 4 if v adjacent to u 5 then D(v) = c(u,v) 6 else D(v) = ∞ 7 8 Loop 9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum 10 add w to N' 11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' : 12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) ) 13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known 14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */ 15 until all nodes in N'

9. CPSC441: Routing9 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example Step 0 1 2 3 4 5 N' u ux uxy uxyv uxyvw uxyvwz D(v),p(v) 2,u D(w),p(w) 5,u 4,x 3,y D(x),p(x) 1,u D(y),p(y) ∞ 2,x D(z),p(z) ∞ 4,y u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5

10. CPSC441: Routing10 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion Algorithm complexity: n nodes r each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N r n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n 2 ) r more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn) Oscillations possible: r e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic A D C B 1 1+e e 0 e 1 1 0 0 A D C B 2+e 0 0 0 1+e 1 A D C B 0 2+e 1+e 1 0 0 A D C B 2+e 0 0 0 1+e 1 initially … recompute routing … recompute

11. CPSC441: Routing11 Distance Vector Algorithm (1) Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming) Define d x (y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y Then d x (y) = min {c(x,v) + d v (y) } where min is taken over all neighbors of x

12. CPSC441: Routing12 Bellman-Ford example (2) u y x wv z 2 2 1 3 1 1 2 5 3 5 Clearly, d v (z) = 5, d x (z) = 3, d w (z) = 3 d u (z) = min { c(u,v) + d v (z), c(u,x) + d x (z), c(u,w) + d w (z) } = min {2 + 5, 1 + 3, 5 + 3} = 4 Node that achieves minimum is next hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table B-F equation says:

13. CPSC441: Routing13 Distance Vector Algorithm (3) r D x (y) = estimate of least cost from x to y r Distance vector: D x = [D x (y): y є N ] r Node x knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v) r Node x maintains D x r Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors m For each neighbor v, x maintains D v = [D v (y): y є N ]

14. CPSC441: Routing14 Distance vector algorithm (4) Basic idea: r Each node periodically sends its own distance vector estimate to neighbors r When node a node x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation: D x (y) ← min v {c(x,v) + D v (y)} for each node y ∊ N  Under some conditions, the estimate D x (y) converge the actual least cost d x (y)

15. CPSC441: Routing15 Distance Vector Algorithm (5) Iterative, asynchronous: each local iteration caused by: r local link cost change r DV update message from neighbor Distributed: r each node notifies neighbors when its DV changes m neighbors then notify their neighbors if necessary wait for (change in local link cost of msg from neighbor) recompute estimates if DV to any dest has changed, notify neighbors Each node:

16. CPSC441: Routing16 x y z x y z 0 2 7 ∞∞∞ ∞∞∞ from cost to from x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞ ∞∞∞ cost to x y z x y z 0 2 7 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 3 from cost to x y z x y z 0 2 7 from cost to x y z x y z ∞∞∞ 710 cost to ∞ 2 0 1 ∞ ∞ ∞ 2 0 1 7 1 0 2 0 1 7 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 2 0 1 3 1 0 time x z 1 2 7 y node x table node y table node z table D x (y) = min{c(x,y) + D y (y), c(x,z) + D z (y)} = min{2+0, 7+1} = 2 D x (z) = min{c(x,y) + D y (z), c(x,z) + D z (z)} = min{2+1, 7+0} = 3

17. CPSC441: Routing17 Distance Vector: link cost changes Link cost changes: r node detects local link cost change r updates routing info, recalculates distance vector r if DV changes, notify neighbors “good news travels fast” x z 1 4 50 y 1 At time t 0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV, and informs its neighbors. At time t 1, z receives the update from y and updates its table. It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV. At time t 2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table. y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any message to z.

18. CPSC441: Routing18 Distance Vector: link cost changes Link cost changes: r good news travels fast r bad news travels slow - “count to infinity” problem! r 44 iterations before algorithm stabilizes: see text Poissoned reverse: r If Z routes through Y to get to X : m Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z) r will this completely solve count to infinity problem? x z 1 4 50 y 60

19. CPSC441: Routing19 Comparison of LS and DV algorithms Message complexity r LS: with n nodes, E links, O(nE) msgs sent r DV: exchange between neighbors only Speed of Convergence r LS: O(n 2 ) algorithm requires O(nE) msgs m may have oscillations r DV: convergence time varies m may have routing loops m count-to-infinity problem Robustness: what happens if router malfunctions? LS: m node can advertise incorrect link cost m each node computes only its own table DV: m DV node can advertise incorrect path cost m each node’s table used by others error propagate thru network

20. CPSC441: Routing20 Routing Algorithms Link State Distance Vector Hierarchical Routing

21. CPSC441: Routing21 Hierarchical Routing: Motivation r Our routing study thus far - idealization m all routers identical, network “flat” r scale: with 200 million destinations: m can’t store all dest’s in routing tables! m routing table exchange would swamp links! r administrative autonomy m internet = network of networks m each network admin may want to control routing in its own network

22. CPSC441: Routing22 Hierarchical Routing r aggregate routers into regions, “autonomous systems” (AS) r routers in same AS run same routing protocol m “intra-AS” routing protocol m routers in different AS can run different intra- AS routing protocol Gateway router r Direct link to router in another AS r Establishes a “peering” relationship r Peers run an “inter-AS routing” protocol

23. CPSC441: Routing23 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b Intra-AS Routing algorithm Inter-AS Routing algorithm Forwarding table 3c Interconnected ASes r Forwarding table is configured by both intra- and inter-AS routing algorithm m Intra-AS sets entries for internal dests m Inter-AS & Intra-As sets entries for external dests

24. CPSC441: Routing24 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c Inter-AS tasks r Obtain reachability information from neighboring AS(s) r Propagate this info to all routers within the AS r All Internet gateway routers run a protocol called BGPv4 (we will talk about this soon)

25. CPSC441: Routing25 Learn from inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable via multiple gateways Use routing info from intra-AS protocol to determine costs of least-cost paths to each of the gateways Hot potato routing: Choose the gateway that has the smallest least cost Determine from forwarding table the interface I that leads to least-cost gateway. Enter (x,I) in forwarding table Example: Choosing among multiple ASes r Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2. r To configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine towards which gateway it should forward packets for dest x. r This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol! r Hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two routers.

26. CPSC441: Routing26 Hierarchical Routing Routing in the Internet

27. CPSC441: Routing27 Intra-AS Routing r Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) r Most common Intra-AS routing protocols: m RIP: Routing Information Protocol (DV protocol) m OSPF: Open Shortest Path First (Link-State) m IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco proprietary)

28. CPSC441: Routing28 RIP ( Routing Information Protocol) r Distance vector algorithm r Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982 r Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops) D C BA u v w x y z destination hops u 1 v 2 w 2 x 3 y 3 z 2

29. CPSC441: Routing29 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) r “open”: publicly available r Uses Link State algorithm m LS packet dissemination m Topology map at each node m Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm r OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor router r Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via flooding) m Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP or UDP

30. CPSC441: Routing30 OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP) r Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent malicious intrusion) r Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in RIP) r For each link, multiple cost metrics for different TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best effort; high for real time) r Integrated uni- and multicast support: m Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data base as OSPF r Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.

31. CPSC441: Routing31 Hierarchical OSPF

32. CPSC441: Routing32 Internet inter-AS routing: BGP r BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto standard r BGP provides each AS a means to: 1. Obtain subnet reachability information from neighboring ASs. 2. Propagate the reachability information to all routers internal to the AS. 3. Determine “good” routes to subnets based on reachability information and policy. r Allows a subnet to advertise its existence to rest of the Internet: “I am here”

33. CPSC441: Routing33 BGP basics r Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over semi- permanent TCP conctns: BGP sessions r Note that BGP sessions do not correspond to physical links. r When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it will forward any datagrams destined to that prefix towards the prefix. m AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement 3b 1d 3a 1c 2a AS3 AS1 AS2 1a 2c 2b 1b 3c eBGP session iBGP session

34. CPSC441: Routing34 Path attributes & BGP routes r When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP attributes. m prefix + attributes = “route” r Two important attributes: m AS-PATH: contains the ASs through which the advert for the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17 m NEXT-HOP: Indicates the specific internal-AS router to next-hop AS. (There may be multiple links from current AS to next-hop-AS.) r When gateway router receives route advert, uses import policy to accept/decline.

35. CPSC441: Routing35 BGP route selection r Router may learn about more than 1 route to some prefix. Router must select route. r Elimination rules: 1. Local preference value attribute: policy decision 2. Shortest AS-PATH 3. Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing 4. Additional criteria

36. CPSC441: Routing36 Multicast/Broadcast R1 R2 R3R4 (a) R1 R2 R3R4 (b) duplicate creation/transmission duplicate Source-duplication versus in-network duplication. (a) source duplication, (b) in-network duplication

37. CPSC441: Routing37 Network Layer Routing: summary Next stop: the Data link layer! What we’ve covered: r network layer services r routing principles: link state and distance vector r hierarchical routing r Internet routing protocols RIP, OSPF, BGP r what’s inside a router?