1. Phrase Structure Rules
NP => (Det) (Adj) N (PP)
PP => P NP

2. Phrase structure trees
NP NP NP NP
N Det N Det Adj N Det N PP
John the boy the smart boy the boy P NP
in Det N
the bubble
A tree diagram labeled with phrasal categories that shows structure of phrases, sentences.
Node: A labeled branch point in a phrase structure tree.

3. Recursion
Some phrasal categories may appear to the left or right of the arrow
NP  (Det) N (PP)
PP  P (NP)
Recursion: the property of language that allows for the embedding of categories (which can yield infinitely long phrases)

4. PP P NP from Det N PP a boy P NP in Det N a bubble
A tree diagram labeled with phrasal categories that shows structure of phrases, sentences.
Node: A labeled branch point in a phrase structure tree.

5. VP => V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
VP VP VP
V V NP V NP PP Adv
sang ate Det N sang Det N P NP badly
the cake a song in Det N
the shower

6. S
NP VP
Det N V NP
The dog ate Det N
the bone
S  NP VP

7. S
NP Aux VP
Det N will V NP
The dog eat Det N
the bone
S  NP Aux VP

8. Ambiguity The property of having two or more meanings.
Lexical ambiguity
Structural ambiguity
Syntactic rules help us to do more than determine grammaticality

9. Lexical ambiguity Headlines:
PROSTITUTES APPEAL TO POPE
IRAQI HEAD SEEKS ARMS
CHILD’S STOOL IS GREAT FOR USE IN GARDEN
Lexical ambiguity: when a word has more than one meaning

10. Structural ambiguity “I once shot an elephant in my pajamas.”
“Tonight’s program will discuss sex with Dr. Ruth Westheimer.”
“We will not sell gasoline to anyone in a glass container.”
“This mixing bowl is designed to please any cook with a round bottom for efficient beating.”
If a single sentence can have two meanings, then we cannot attribute the meaning to just the choice of words and their ordering; there must be a third factor: its structure.

11. Structural ambiguity
Ambiguity resulting from the structure of the phrase or sentence
e.g. [shot [an elephant] [in my pajamas]]
[shot [an elephant in my pajamas]]
e.g. [discuss [sex with Dr. Ruth Westheimer]]
[discuss [sex] [with Dr. Ruth Westheimer]]

12. Structural ambiguity
discuss [sex with Dr. Ruth] discuss [sex] [with Dr. Ruth]
VP VP
V NP V NP PP
discuss N PP discuss sex P NP
sex P NP with Dr. Ruth
with Dr. Ruth

13. Tests for Constituent structure
Substitution
Movement
Deletion
Coordination

14. Substitution: NP
Substitute for NPs with pronouns (he, she, it, they, etc.)
e.g., [Laura] will buy [the new Battlestar Galactica DVD] tomorrow.
Rita will buy it Wednesday.
She will buy ‘V’ for Vendetta Friday.
NP[the new BSG DVD]
NP[Laura]

15. Substitution: VP Substitute for VPs with do/done so
e.g., Laura has eaten lots of Halloween candy.
Matt has done so too.
Sandy will do so if we don’t stop her.
AUX (has, will, etc.) is outside the VP constituent.
S => NP Aux VP

16. Substitution test “The cow attacked the farmer with the axe.”
The cow attacked him.
NP: [the farmer with the axe]
The cow attacked him with it.
him: NP[the farmer]
it: NP[the axe]

17. Movement
Constituents can move to positions in the sentence other than where they would normally go
Obligatory: Question formation
Optional: Topicalization

18. Word Order English is an SVO language: Subject – Verb – Object
Harry rides brooms.
Ron makes jokes.
Trevor eats flies.

19. Obligatory Movement Question formation:
“Laura will drive her car on the weekend.”
What will Laura drive (her car) on the weekend?
When will Laura drive her car (on the weekend)?

20. Optional Movement
Topicalization: optional movement used to emphasize something
I don’t like peas, but peanuts I like _____.
They didn’t think he could win the election, but win the election he did __________.
O - S - V

21. Movement test “The cow attacked the farmer with the axe.”
Who did the cow attack _______________?
Who did the cow attack__________ with the axe?
the farmer with the axe
the farmer

22. Deletion
A constituent can be deleted from a phrase when there is an identical constituent in the discourse to supply its meaning

23. Deletion test “The cow attacked the farmer with the axe.”
The cow is attacking the farmer with the axe.
The horse is ______, too.

24. Conjunctions
Words and phrases of the same category can be combined using conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or)
NP  NP conj NP
VP  VP conj VP
S  S conj S
Cats and dogs are furry.
He will run and jump.
You can run but you can’t hide.

25. Conjoined phrases NP NP  NP Conj NP NP Conj NP NP  Det N Det N Det N
the
cat
and
the
dog

26. Conjoined sentences I bought a book, but I returned it. S S  S conj S
S conj S S  NP VP
NP VP but NP VP
I V NP I V NP
bought a book returned it

27. Ungrammatical coordination
Different categories cannot be conjoined
Julia wrote a memo.
Julia wrote to the dean.
*Julia wrote [a memo] and [to the dean].
NP PP

28. Coordination test Laura loves linguistics.
Laura teaches enthusiastically.
Laura loves linguistics and teaches enthusiastically.
Conclusion:
[loves linguistics] and [teaches enthusiastically] are the same kind of constituent: VP

29. Coordination test Reveals information about
whether a group of words is a constituent
what kind of constituent it is