1. SF Intermediate Economics 2005/06 Francis O’Toole

2. CONSUMER THEORY We will look at 1. Scarcity: income and prices 2. Tastes 3. Combine scarcity and tastes (i) Individual demand (ii) Market demand

3. SCARCITY 2 Products (Goods or Services): X 1 and X 2 Fixed money income: M Given prices: p 1 and p 2 Income constraint: p 1 X 1 + p 2 X 2 = M Rearranging, X 2 = M/p 2 – (p 1 /p 2 )X 1 Slope:  X 2 /  X 1 = - (p 1 /p 2 )

4. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 Budget constraint is p 1 x 1 + p 2 x 2 = m m /p 1 m /p 2

5. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 m /p 2 m /p 1 Budget constraint is p 1 x 1 + p 2 x 2 = m

6. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 m /p 1 Just affordable m /p 2

7. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 m /p 1 Just affordable Not affordable m /p 2

8. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 m /p 1 Affordable (irrational) Just affordable Not affordable m /p 2

9. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 m /p 1 Budget Set the collection of all affordable bundles. m /p 2

10. Budget Set and Constraint for Two Products x2x2 x1x1 p 1 x 1 + p 2 x 2 = m Re-arranging (as before) x 2 = - (p 1 /p 2 )x 1 + m/p 2 so slope is – (p 1 /p 2 ) m /p 1 Budget Set m /p 2

11. SCARITY Budget Constraint X2X2 X1X1 M/p 2 M/p 1 p 1 X 1 +p 2 X 2 = M Budget Set The slope of the income constraint represents society’s willingness to trade; to increase consumption of product 1 by 1 unit, an individual must decrease consumption of product 2 by P 1 /P 2 units. “OPPPORTUNITY COST” Slope  X 2 /  X 1 = - (p 1 /p 2 )

12. CHANGES IN INCOME CONSTRAINT INCOME CHANGES X2X2 X1X1 A parallel shift in the budget constraint Note: Slope remains unchanged

13. INCOME CHANGES u No original choice is lost and new choices are added when income increases, so higher income will make a consumer better off. u Trade off between products [– (p 1 /p 2 )] remains unchanged. u An income decrease will make the consumer worse off.

14. How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p 1 decreases (from p 1 0 to p 1 1 )? Original budget set x2x2 x1x1 m/p 2 m/p 1 0 m/p 1 1 P 1 1 <P 1 0 Ratio of P 1 /P 2 changes Slope changes

15. How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p 1 decreases from p 1 0 to p 1 1 ? Original budget set x2x2 x1x1 m/p 2 m/p 1 0 m/p 1 1 -p 1 0 /p 2

16. How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p 1 decreases from p 1 0 to p 1 1 ? Original budget set x2x2 x1x1 m/p 2 m/p 1 0 m/p 1 1 New affordable choices -p 1 0 /p 2

17. How do the budget set and budget constraint change as p 1 decreases from p 1 0 to p 1 ? Original budget set x2x2 x1x1 m/p 2 m/p 1 0 m/p 1 1 New affordable choices Budget constraint pivots; slope flattens from -p 1 0 /p 2 to -p 1 1 /p 2 -p 1 0 /p 2 -p 1 1 /p 2

18. PRICE CHANGES u Reducing the price of one commodity pivots the constraint outward. No old choice is lost and new choices are added, so reducing one price cannot make the consumer worse off. u Trade off between products [– (p 1 /p 2 )] is changed. u Similarly, increasing one price pivots the constraint inwards, reduces choice and cannot make the consumer better off.

19. PRICE CHANGES II Claim: A doubling of all prices is equivalent to halving income. P 1 X 1 + P 2 X 2 = M Let all prices change by a factor of t (e.g. t = 2) (tP 1 )X 1 + (tP 2 )X 2 = M  P 1 X 1 + P 2 X 2 = M/t (i.e. equivalent to a parallel shift in the income constraint) (Relatuve prices remain unchanged.)

20. COMPOSITE PRODUCT n products? P 1 X 1 + P 2 X 2 + …….. + P n X n = M P 1 X 1 + [P 2 X 2 + P 3 X 3 + …….. + P n X n ] = M [P 2 X 2 + P 3 X 3 + …….. + P n X n ] represents income spent on all products other than product 1, that is, income spent on a composite product.

21. COMPOSITE PRODUCT X2X2 X1X1 Composite product

22. INCOME CONSTRAINT and TAXES Excise tax: (P 1 +t)X 1 + P 2 X 2 = M Value added tax: (1+T)P 1 X 1 + P 2 X 2 = M Lump Sum tax: P 1 X 1 + P 2 X 2 = M - (Lump Sum) Think about (i) Income constraint and subsidies (ii) Income constraint and rationing