1. Why Go to College? Continued…

2. Move to the micro… Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968) Pygmalion in the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968) All Hispanic Elementary School in San Francisco All Hispanic Elementary School in San Francisco Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition Harvard Test of Inflected Acquisition Told teachers could predict which students would bloom Told teachers could predict which students would bloom Came back 1 year later Came back 1 year later

3. Experiments “Gold Standard” for testing hypotheses “Gold Standard” for testing hypotheses Allows researcher to distinguish the effects of selection and influence Allows researcher to distinguish the effects of selection and influence Two critical characteristics: Two critical characteristics: 1. Experimenter manipulates the independent variable 2. Experimenter randomly assigns subjects to experimental condition

4. Mean Gain in total IQ

5. Mean Gain in Reasoning

6. Percentages of First and Second Graders gaining 10,. 20, or 30 total IQ points CONTROLEXPERIMENTAL 10 Points49%79% 20 Points19%47% 30 points5%21% Rosenthal and Jacobsen, p. 76

7. Mean Change in Reading Grades

8. CONTROLEXPERIMENT CHANGE Curious5.506.25(+.75) Interesting5.466.43(+.97) Future Success5.536.48(+.95) Adjusted5.676.04(+.37) Appealing5.786.23(+.45) Happy5.776.33(+.56) Affectionate5.726.01(+.30) Hostile3.843.97(+.13) Needs Approval5.354.97(-.38) Classroom Behavior after one year: control and experimental groups

9. Conclusions Teacher expectations matter Teacher expectations matter IQ and performance are plastic IQ and performance are plastic Especially among younger students Especially among younger students Evidence of self-fulfilling prophecy Evidence of self-fulfilling prophecy Ethical issues associated with doing study Ethical issues associated with doing study

10. Still, want to know how it happened Ray Rist study Ray Rist study All Black elementary school in Harlem All Black elementary school in Harlem Observed classrooms over a two year period Observed classrooms over a two year period Watched how teachers interacted with students Watched how teachers interacted with students

11. Focus on seating and attention Teacher Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

12. How were students assigned to tables? Teacher had image of successful student, which was related to social class background Led to subjective evaluation whether or not students had desired traits, based on: –Physical appearance and odor of students –Interactional behavior –Language usage –Social and demographic information

13. Once assigned, what happened? Tables received differential attention, rewards, teaching time Students treated each other differently, and developed expectations for themselves and each other (looking-glass self) A gap in achievement emerged This gap became ‘objectified’ on standardized tests, which were used to place students the following year

14. Key finding of Rist’s Study Teacher’s view of success Kid’s Class background Teacher Expectations For child Child’s test scores

15. Classrooms and inequality Studies of the classroom suggest that education may not be doing much to reduce inequality between generations Studies of the classroom suggest that education may not be doing much to reduce inequality between generations Rather, may be reproducing the class position of the parents Rather, may be reproducing the class position of the parents Tracking and teacher expectations are the mechanisms by which inequality is reproduced Tracking and teacher expectations are the mechanisms by which inequality is reproduced

16. What matters in education? Opportunity * Opportunity * Ability* Ability* Performance* Performance* Sanctions* Sanctions* Understanding* Understanding* Ambition Ambition *socially constructed

17. What do you think?