1. Outline Attributes of “restored” ecosystems Reference conditions, range of variability Western USA ponderosa pine forests as examples

2. SER definition of ER: “The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.” It is an intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem. Broad, encompassing definition 9 basic criteria of restored ecosystems

3. From NPS, GC NP Colorado River – flooding Reestablish flooding regime = partly reestablishing trajectory

4. When is an ecosystem restored? Sufficient biotic/abiotic resources to continue its development Need for subsequent maintenance and management It could be argued, quite effectively, that often restoration is never complete

5. 9 attributes of restored ecosystems (1) Species composition resembles reference ecosystem (2) Indigenous species as much as possible (3) Key functional groups present (e.g., nitrogen fixers)

6. 9 attributes of restored ecosystems (4) Abiotic envt. can support biota (5) “Normal” function for its ecological development stage along trajectory (6) Integrated into larger landscape

7. 9 attributes of restored ecosystems (7) Threats reduced (8) Ecosystem resilient to endure normal stress (9) Self-sustaining similar to reference ecosystem

8. 9 attributes of restored ecosystems Simply guides, basic criteria Other attributes may be important Full expression of all attributes not necessary to qualify for restoration (e.g., need for continued mgt.) Measurement challenges

9. Restored Cultural Ecosystems Restoration and rehabilitation of species-rich grasslands – Restoration Ecology 6:94-101

10. Midwestern USA oak savannas – another cultural ecosystem Photo by TNC

11. Continuum of restoration projects “idealized” projects – do happen Commonly restore components (e.g., raking ORV tracks – aesthetics, minimize damage, function?) Sometimes useful to differentiate between mgt. and restoration

12. Continuum of restoration projects Yes, there is gray area, which may not be fully comfortable Keep in mind the “bottom line” – is the ecosystem better off before or after the activity? If trajectory improved, at least partly successful

13. Bass River Recreation Area, Western Michigan Photo from N.W. MacDonald

14. Our study occurs on the continuum between what many restoration ecologists consider reclamation, rehabilitation, and restoration (Society for Ecological Restoration International Science and Policy Working Group, 2004). ….. Because of severe soil degradation and knapweed dominance at our study site, we deviated from attempting to restore mixed-oak savanna or forest by establishing a grassland community composed of warm-season grasses native to the reference ecosystem. This is an initial intervention to align the site on a trajectory toward recovery of native species and processes (Society for Ecological Restoration International Science and Policy Working Group, 2004). Reducing knapweed, reestablishing native species, and restoring a historical process (fire) are key steps in manipulating this trajectory away from the current monotypic stands of spotted knapweed. MacDonald et al. 2007. Restoration Ecology 15:118-128.

15. Reference conditions/range of variability Concepts underpin ER Reference conditions – attributes of target ecosystem Only a guide – linked to historical range of variability

16. What variables to measure for reference conditions? Theoretically all, but not practical Focus on variables thought to be key drivers of the system Example of reference data – 1875 = 60 pine/ha, fire frequency = 3 years

17. UPPER LIMIT LOWER LIMIT Modified from: Morgan, P., G.H. Aplet, J.B. Haufler, H.C. Humphries, M.M. Moore, and W.D. Wilson. 1994. Historical range of variability: a useful tool for evaluating ecosystem change. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 2:87-111. Range of Variability Concept

18. Case study of reference conditions/HRV concepts – ponderosa pine example Reference conditions = ~ 1875 forests – low- density forests + frequent fire Compare current conditions to reference conditions, and identify sources of degradation “Forest restoration” in this case does not = planting trees – rather, removing trees to return to within range of variability Major restoration tmts = thinning + reestablishment of frequent fire

19. Forest change at Walker Lake, Coconino National Forest, AZ www.eri.nau.edu 1875 2003

21. April 22, 1909 Sept 7, 1949 June 16, 2003 Historical photos from: http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/fortvalley/

22. Before restoration 4 years after restoration www.eri.nau.edu

23. 18202005 Reference point Fire Goodsprings, 3 December 2006

24. Las Vegas Precipitation, 1937-2006 Data from Western Regional Climate Center, Reno, NV

25. Types of Reference Information (i) Current conditions Climate Topography/hydrology Composition, structure Successional trends

26. Types of Reference Information (ii) Historical Records Archived data Written/oral history Photos U.S. Govt. land surveys Management/land use records Weather/hydrologic records

27. Types of Reference Information (iii) Legacy and Latency Snags/coarse woody debris Dendroecology Pollen spores, phytoliths Geomorphological features

28. Another reference classification (i) Same time, same place x 2007 (ii) Same time, different place x 2007 y 2007 (iii) Different time, same place x 1840 (iv) Different time, different place x 2007 y 1840

29. Moore et al. 2004. Forest Science 50:162-176.

30. Historical Photographs Examples: New Mexico State University University Collections – Jornada Experimental Range – http://archives.nmsu.edu/rghc/photo/photos.html U.S. Forest Service Southwestern Region – http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/about/history/photo.shtml

31. Historical Descriptions Early Euro-American settler journals U.S. Army expeditions U.S. Govt. geological reconnaissance Early botanists

32. U.S. Army Lieutenant A.W. Whipple – March 3, 1854 - …”We reached, at the point of the mountain, Pai-Ute Creek, a finely flowing stream of water. Finding good grass also, we encamped. March 5, 1854 – “Passing over the prairie, nearly seven miles west, we arrived at a spring of water oozing from a rocky ravine.” …”The hill-sides and ravines are covered with excellent grass..”

33. From Carpenter, D.E., et al. 1986. Madrono 33:111-122.

36. From USGS

38. Rhyolite, Nevada Kurt Wenner, http://www.ghosttowns.com/states/nv/rhyolite.html

39. Dendroecology

41. U of A tree ring lab

43. Paul Martin, University of Arizona, next to Pleistocene (<11,000 ybp ) midden. http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/

44. Agropyron spicatum Bluebunch Wheatgrass Artemisia tridentata Big Sagebrush http://coss.stcloudstate.edu/mblinnikov/phd/phyt.html Plant Phytoliths

48. War Zones and Game Sinks in Lewis and Clark’s West – Conservation Biology 13:36-45.