1. Exam # 1 Friday, 24 February Individual Classrooms

2. Early Ideas About Matter

3. Motion - Matter Gravity –universal property of all matter –strength of attraction is function of mass, regardless of material Fundamental property to distinguish different types of matter -- ? --

4. Structure & nature of matter changes when: Wood burned Foods cooked Clays fired to make bricks and pottery Metals smelted

5. What types of Matter were ancient people aware of?

6. Gold Silver Copper Iron Mercury Lead Tin “Seven Metals of the Ancients”

7. Metal (shiny, malleable) Gold Silver Copper Iron Mercury Lead Tin

8. Metal (shiny, malleable) Gold Silver Copper Iron Mercury Lead Tin

9. Metal (shiny, malleable) Gold Silver Copper Iron Mercury Lead Tin

10. Metal (shiny, malleable) Gold Silver Copper Iron Mercury Lead Tin

11. Where do metals come from? A few metals occur naturally in metallic form - Gold and silver deposits were found in ancient times

12. Where do metals come from? Most metals occur in ores –Ores are more like earths (dull, brittle) than like metals Iron ore Lead ore

13. Smelting metals from their ores –Ores must be processed to yield pure metals –Only a small percentage of metal yielded copper ore and modern man’s inept attempt at smelting

14. Alloys Combination of metals Better properties –Lower melting point –Stronger, less brittle Example: Bronze –Alloy of copper and tin

15. Stone Age ~ stone tool manufacture, no use of metals

16. Copper Age (4500 BC) ~ first metal smelted

17. Bronze Age (3500 BC) ~ tin/copper alloy ~ copper & tin deposits only in certain areas ~ strong easily worked

18. Iron Age (1500 BC on) ~ found all over ~ can be sharpened; hard and tough ~ difficult to work ~ required hot furnace & special techniques

19. Iron Furnace

20. Earths (not shiny, brittle Clay Mud Sand Silt Loam Ash

21. Pottery Fired clay –from 6500 BC? Certain clays used –at certain temperature –for certain times Patterned, pigmented

22. Glass Melted sand Certain sands used High temperatures Blown, molded Earths, metals added  color, strength Ancient Roman glass jug

23. Stone (hard, brittle) Limestone Marble Sandstone Shale Granite Soapstone

24. Woods Oak Maple Cedar Mahogany Ebony Yew

25. Ivory, bone, and horn

26. Fibers Grass Cotton Flax Straw Bulrushes Hair

27. Papyrus

28. Other crafts practiced since early times Pigments Dyes Perfumes Fermenting drinks Tanning Cooking

29. Ancient peoples distinguished many different materials Engineers and artisans had developed many material technologies These technologies were applied to specific materials for specific purposes Early Chemical Technology

30. Unification Huge diversity Fundamental principles exist? Which properties important? Categorization

31. What do we know now?

32. One Classification of Matter: Phases Bottle A: GAS Bottle B: LIQUID Bottle C: SOLID

33. Another Classification Scheme for Matter

34. Everything is Made of Atoms

35. Atoms Combine to Form Molecules Most materials are made of more than one type of atom Chemical formula gives atomic makeup –Water is H 2 O –Ammonia is NH 3 –Glucose is C 6 H 12 O 6

36. Each Element Has a Different Number of Protons

37. What Determines Chemical Properties of Each Element? Usually, # of protons = # of electrons Electrons tend to fill shells surrounding nucleus Outer shell stability

38. Chemical Reactions Rearrange Atoms Number of atoms does not change –Reactants have same atoms as products Only arrangement of atoms change –Different molecules after reaction Methane + oxygen gas  carbon dioxide + water –CH 4 + 2O 2  CO 2 + 2H 2 O –One carbon, two oxygen, four hydrogen (before & after)

39. What is the true nature of a substance? Does one basic material exist?

40. Thales (640 – 546 B.C.) Basic element is water In greatest quantities Found as solid, liquid, and gas

41. Nature of matter: One basic substance Anaximander All matter from one “boundless something” that contained all qualities (wet/dry; hot/cold)

42. Nature of matter: One basic substance Anaximenes (570 BC) - Air is the one basic substance - All space above Earth is air. -Compress air to form denser water and earth

43. Hericlitus (540 – 475 B.C.) If change characterized the Earth... Basic element must be changeable That element must be fire

44. Empedocles (490 – 430 BC)

45. Wood reveals its composition when it burns: fire issues from it water oozes from it/hisses air (smoke) is produced from it earth (ashes) remain behind Each different kind of matter is a combination of two or more elements in particular proportions, for example …

46. Four Elements / Four Qualities of the Ancient Greeks Elements had four qualities: Dry vs. Moist & Hot vs. Cold Qualities combined in various pairs to form the different elemental components of the Earth

47. Matter marble Form shape Matter 4 elements Form specific combination of elements Statue Individual Elements

48. Form qualities Ultimate Matter prima materia

49. One element to another element Change qualities = change 1 element into another element Elements themselves were interchangeable: Water  air when it evaporates (wet-cold  wet-hot) Air  water when it rains (wet-hot  wet-cold)

50. Four elements and alchemy Aristotle’s four element theory was to exert a considerable influence on the practice of alchemy and the idea of transmutation

51. Transmutations Alter proportions of elements = change one type or matter into another. Idea carries over into alchemy: Transmute a cheap metal into gold by adjusting proportions of the four elements

52. Greek “Atoms” Question of divisibility of matter Break a stone and it is still a stone Leucippus (c. 450 B.C.) eventually no further division

53. Democritus (470 – 380 B.C.) Atomos – indivisible – move in empty space (void) One fundamental material Many different sizes and shapes gave different properties to elements Aristotle wins – atomist idea died out

54. Alexander the Great (356 – 323 B.C.)

55. Early Laboratory Chemistry = Alchemy Sorcerer's Apprentice

56. Beginnings of Alchemy Emphasis on degrees of purity/nobility ~ Gold most pure and noble ~ “Maturation” of minerals in ground Incorporated Aristotle’s four elements Greek Philosophy – Egyptian craftsman

57. Transmutation as goal of Alchemy (wealth – longevity – immortality) Chemical ~ transform base metals  silver / gold Physiological ~ Sickness  Health ~ Old-age  Youth ~ Earthly  Supernatural Existence

58. The Alchemical Tradition Origins: ~ Greece (Hellenistic) ~ China ~ India Further developed by Arabs Inherited by medieval Europeans Part practical chemistry, part spiritual quest

59. Hellenistic Alchemy Transmutation of base metals to gold Spiritual Purification Hermes Trigmegistus

60. Eastern/Chinese Alchemy Independent of (and prior to?) Western alchemy Gold is eternal and healing, led to medical alchemy: Search for the “Elixir of Life,” Soluble “potable gold” (400 BC) a potion for eternal life

61. Indian Alchemy Mineral remedies for specific diseases Promote long life (not immortality)

62. Arab/Islamic Alchemy Arabic alchemists – add mercury and sulfur Used “al-iksurs” (colored “seed” catalysts) in transmutation attempts. Arabic alchemists – philosopher’s stone to stimulate transmutation Combustible principle = phlogiston theory

63. Importance of Medicine Problems: crowded, unsanitary, infested homes; contaminated food/water; low life expectancy. Physicians in medieval Europe - Most followed ideas of Hippocrates (460- 370 BC) and Galen (129-200 AD). - Disease = imbalance in 4 body humours. Inorganic substances and alcohol could fight infection, but not favored by Galenists.

64. Ibn-Sina/Avicenna ( 980-1037) Greatest physician of his time Believed in Four Elements but not transmutation. Contributions: ~ dosage effect of drugs ~ Had idea that chemicals maintain identity even when combined

65. Paracelsus (1493 – 1541) At odds with the dominant medical establishment Disease spread between persons (external cause?) contrary to Galen’s ideas Founded Iatrochemistry (Alchemy for medicinal purposes) Iatrochemist’s legacy – legitimacy of chemistry

66. Paracelsus’ idea of elements and principles Three Elements (Fire, Air, Water) and Three Principles of Earth (sulfur, mercury, and salt) Wood burning: “That which burns is sulfur, that which vaporizes is mercury, and that which turns to ashes is salt.”

67. Gold  Elixirs  Immortality  Superior Medicines

68. Accomplishments of Alchemy Laboratory apparatus Practical chemical knowledge, techniques, and reactions despite incorrect theories Quantitative methods New substances