1. 1 A Network of Domain Ontologies Material (Regional) Ontologies Basic Formal Ontology

2. 2 A Network of Domain Ontologies BFO

3. 3 A Network of Domain Ontologies BFO ChemO

4. 4 A Network of Domain Ontologies BFO ChemOMedO

5. 5 A Network of Domain Ontologies BFO ChemOMedOEcO

6. 6 Anglocentric Realism We have a huge amount of knowledge of reality, at many different levels of granularity, from microphysics to cosmology

7. 7 Anglocentric Realism TEE = Technically Extended English = English extended by the technical vocabularies of chemistry, genetics, medicine, astronomy, economics, etc.

8. 8 Unfortunately … there are problems with TEE as a formal representation language (cf. Tarski)

9. 9 Nouns and verbs Substances and processes Continuants and occurrents In preparing an inventory of reality we keep track of these two different categories of entities in two different ways

10. 10 Natural language glues them together indiscriminately substance t i m e process

11. 11 Snapshot vs. Video substance t i m e process

12. 12 Substances Mesoscopic reality is divided at its natural joints into substances: animals, bones, rocks, potatoes

13. 13 The Ontology of Substances Substances form natural kinds (universals, species + genera)

14. 14 Processes Processes merge into one another Process kinds merge into one another … few clean joints either between instances or between types

15. 15 Processes t i m e

16. 16 Some clean joints derive from the fact that processes are dependent on substances (my headache is cleanly demarcated from your headache)

17. 17 Some clean joints in realms of artefactual processes: weddings on-line trades dog shows rental contract terms sharp divisions imputed via clocks, calendars

18. 18 Clean joints also through language = fiat demarcations Quinean gerrymandering ontologies are attractive for processes not for substances Quine: there are no substances

19. 19 Substances and processes t i m e process demand different sorts of inventories

20. 20 Substances demand 3-D partonomies space

21. 21 Processes demand 4D-partonomies t i m e

22. 22 Processes have temporal parts The first 5 minutes of my headache is a temporal part of my headache The first game of the match is a temporal part of the whole match

23. 23 Substances do not have temporal parts The first 5-minute phase of my existence is not a temporal part of me It is a temporal part of that complex moment which is my life

24. 24 Qualities, Roles, Functions, Powers, Dispositions Do not have temporal parts They belong to the SNAP ontology = Snapshot of what exists at a time

25. 25 Substances have spatial parts Substance is one thing The life of a substance is another thing

26. 26 How do we glue these two different sorts of entities together mereologically? How do we include them both in a single inventory of reality How do we include both goods and consumption of goods within the same ontology? Both prices and acts of buying and selling?

27. 27 You are a substance Your life is a process You are 3-dimensional Your life is 4-dimensional

28. 28 Substances and processes form two distinct orders of being Substances exist as a whole at every point in time at which they exist at all Processes unfold through time, and are never present in full at any given instant during which they exist. When do both exist to be inventoried together?

29. 29 Main problem English swings back and forth between two distinct depictions of reality … imposing both SNAP partitions (yielding substances) and SPAN partitions (yielding processes) at the same time

30. 30 A good formal ontology must divide into two sub-ontologies: 1. a four-dimensionalist ontology (of processes) SPAN cf. Quine 2. a SNAPshot ontology of those things which do not have temporal parts (cf. Brentano, Aristotle, Chisholm)

31. 31 These represent two views of the same rich and messy reality, the reality captured promiscuously by TEE

32. 32 The SPAN Ontology t i m e

33. 33 boundaries are mostly fiat t i m e everything is flux

34. 34 mereology works without restriction everywhere here t i m e clinical trial

35. 35 here time exists as part of the domain of the ontology

36. 36 The SNAP Ontologies t1t1 t3t3 t2t2 here time exists outside the ontology, as an index or time-stamp

37. 37 mereology works without restriction in every instantaneous 3-D section through reality

38. 38 Three views/partitions of the same reality

39. 39 The Time-Stamped (3-D) Ontology t1t1 t3t3 t2t2

40. 40 each section through reality is to be conceived in presentist terms each section includes everything which exists at the corresponding now

41. 41 Not in a Subject Substantial In a Subject Accidental Said of a Subject Universal, General, Type Second Substances man, horse, mammal Non-substantial Universals whiteness, knowledge Not said of a Subject Particular, Individual, Token First Substances this individual man, this horse this mind, this body Individual Accidents this individual whiteness, knowledge of grammar

42. 42 Refining the Ontological Square Substantial Dependent Entities Exercise of power Exercise of function Movement Action Substances Collectives Undetached parts Substantial boundaries Powers Functions Qualities Shapes Occurrents Continuants

43. 43 Refining the Ontological Square Substantial Moments (Dependent) Exercise of power Exercise of function Movement Action Substances Collectives Undetached parts Substantial boundaries Powers Functions Qualities Shapes Occurrents Continuants

44. 44 Refining the Ontological Square Substantial Dependent Entities Exercise of power Exercise of function Movement Action Processes Substances Collectives Undetached parts Substantial boundaries Qualities Powers Functions Roles QPFR Occurrents Continuants

45. 45 Refining the Ontological Square Substantial Dependent Entities John‘s reddening John‘s blushing John‘s bruising SPAN Substances Collectives Undetached parts Substantial boundaries John‘s redness John‘s blush John‘s bruise SNAP Occurrents Continuants

46. 46 Refining the Ontological Square Substantial Dependent Entities John‘s reddening John‘s blushing John‘s bruising SPAN Stuff (Blood, Snow, Tissue) Mixtures Holes, Contexts, Niches John‘s redness John‘s blush John‘s bruise SNAP Occurrents Continuants

47. 47 A Refined Ontological Square Substantial Dependent Entities John‘s reddening John‘s professorship My knowledge of French SPAN (perduring) Stuff (Blood, Snow, Tissue) Mixtures Holes John‘s redness John‘s blush John‘s bruise SNAP (enduring) Occurrents Continuants

48. 48 There are many different species-genus hierarchies  many different ways to cut through the complex thicket of invariant patterns in reality  MANY DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE SAME REALITY

49. 49 Recall the distinct temporal partitions of reality as a whole

50. 50 Coarse-grained Partition

51. 51 Fine-Grained Partition

52. 52 Basic Formal Ontology ? ? ?

53. 53 Ontological Zooming

54. 54 Universe/Periodic Table animal bird canary ostrich fish folk biology partition of DNA space

55. 55 Universe/Periodic Table animal bird canary ostrich fish both are transparent partitions of one and the same reality

56. 56 Perspectivalism Different partitions may represent cuts through the same reality which are skew to each other

57. 57 Many partitions are transparent to reality TEE is a ragbag of skew partitions, some of them transparent One job of the ontologist is to understand how different partitions of the same reality interrelate -- notion of projection

58. 58 Basic Formal Ontology consists in a series of sub- ontologies (most properly conceived as a series of perspectives on reality), the most important of which are:

59. 59 BFO SnapBFO, a series of snapshot ontologies (O ti ), indexed by times SpanBFO a single videoscopic ontology (O v ).

60. 60 SNAP and SPAN Each O ti is an inventory of all entities existing at a time. O v is an inventory (processory) of all processes unfolding through time. (Each O ti is thus analogous to anatomy; O v is analogous to physiology.)

61. 61 SNAP and SPAN Each snapshot ontology represents a presentistic assay of the entities existing at some given present instant. O v is a (God’s eye) partition of the totality of processes.

62. 62 SNAP: Entities existing in toto at a time

63. 63

64. 64

65. 65 SNAP

66. 66 SPAN: Entities extended in time

67. 67 SPAN: Entities extended in time

68. 68 SPAN: Entities extended in time

69. 69 The ontologies here indicated are partial only (they are windows on just that portion of reality which is visible through the given ontology).

70. 70 Double-Counting A cell labeled * within a given ontology represents a category division which involves some double-counting in relation to the categories within the same ontology represented by cells not so labeled.

71. 71 For example here

72. 72 Behavior Settings SNAP‘s spatiotemporal regions include behavior settings (the 5pm train to Long Island, the early morning swim, your meeting with the Dean).

73. 73 SPAN: Entities extended in time

74. 74 APPLICATION The Ontology of National Income Statistics from the Consumer’s Perspective Wolfgang Grassl and Barry Smith

75. 75 Music Consumer’s perspective Producer’s perspective Taxation authority’s perspective

76. 76 Embodied and Splintered Services EmbodiedDisembodied/Splintered haircuttingLPs, CDs consultingbooks, newspapers nursingpainting prostitutionadvertising teachingtelevision, telephone transportsoftware on the net

77. 77 Definition Service = an economic good for which production and consumption coincide

78. 78 No splintered services The hitherto commonly accepted category of ‘splintered’ (‘disembodied’) services, i.e. economic goods which are services but yet such that their production and consumption do not coincide, has to be rejected.

79. 79 Is a CD a commodity or a service? It is not true that when I buy a CD I am buying services of a composer and performers. Rather, I am buying a commodity, which is ontologically no different from a car or a bag of rice.

80. 80 Commodities vs. Services Make a distinction between consumable (bananas) and non- consumable (roads, telephone lines) commodities. The latter afford services.

81. 81 Strict, independent services Dependent Services Selling manufactu red goods Renting manufactured goods haircuttingadvertisingLPs, CDscar rental consultingselling, transport books, newspapers telecommunications nursinginput servicepaintingroad networks prostitutionadvertising teaching television, theatre performances television, theatre technical services software on the net

82. 82 Remoteness television telephone sex and all internet content providors neither spatial nor temporal coincidence is necessary

83. 83 Television and telecommunications are similar ontologically: each has two components: the network and the utilization of the network = continuants plus occurrents SNAP plus SPAN

84. 84 From the consumer’s perspective However, television is a service industry: we watch television in order to enjoy the services of the actors. The network and delivery mechanism are secondary. Not so for telephone ‘service’ From the consumer’s perspective, telecommunications is an industry analogous to car rental. Two speakers want to use the actual physical mechanical network object.

85. 85 Car rental is like home rental; i.e. it is the purchase of an object for a certain time. Are telecommunications commodities (do we rent the telephone system for 5 seconds) or services (like buying a hairdresser’s services for 5 minutes)? Telecommunications are like water or electricity? If you use a public telephone in an airport you are RENTING the telephone. There it is a commodity.

86. 86 Phone sex, and other stuff which comes down the phone line, is a service. But the telecommunication system itself is a commodity, which we rent in just the same way that we rent a free-standing public telephone in an airport. You still pay for your telephone connection when no one is using the line.

87. 87 What of: Transport services Insurance services Protection services (army services)

88. 88 The category of personally delivered services – where production and consumption coincide both spatially and temporally – is characterized by the fact that rental is impossible. Such services (all genuine services) can only be purchased.

89. 89 An adequate ontology of the marketing phenomenon: must include three categories: Substances (also called things, commodities, manufactured goods) Processes (also called events, services) and Settings (also called environments, niches, contexts, situations).

90. 90 The value of a commodity is dependent upon the setting in which it exists at the moment of purchase. The value of a service is dependent upon the setting in which it exists at the moment of delivery.

91. 91 Telephones are physical goods. They have traditionally been regarded as services because they afford usage (they have the dispositional property of providing services). The traditional categorization is erroneous, because this dispositional property applies no less to cars, pianos, rice.

92. 92 There are two sorts of physical substratum for the delivery of services: one is the carrier medium which is the commodity one purchases; the other is the setting, which is the ensemble of environmental features within which a purchase is made (environmental features which are relevant to the purchase). CONSIDER: BUYING A CAR

93. 93 Or buying a CD: The carrier medium (CD) is a commodity because one can either buy it or rent it.

94. 94 An Ontology of Prostitution and Slavery A1 x is a commodity : x is necessarily of such a sort that it can either be bought or rented. A2 x is a service : x is necessarily of such a sort that it can only be bought. A3 x is a (legal) person : x is necessarily of such a sort that it can neither be bought nor rented A4 people cannot own other people

95. 95 Definition of renting Can you rent potatoes? Define renting: x rents y to z : x owns y and x allows z to use y for limited time in exchange for recompense proportionate to the length of time involved. (There is an assumption that y will be available for multiple time periods.) Theorem:There is nothing which can only be rented. Proof: From the definition of renting, and the assumption that people cannot own other people.

96. 96 Services can never be assets People cannot be depreciated. People cannot be assets Know-how is an asset. You can buy know-how (like brand equity) Distinguish between control (renting...) and ownership. Principle/agent problems Know-how is a SNAP entity (a QPFR) Application of know-how is a SPAN entity (a process)

97. 97 Definition of buying What does it mean to buy a commodity? There is a transfer of property rights. There does not have to be any physical dislocation or removal. What does it mean to buy a service?

98. 98 Buying a Service What is involved in employing people? Do you buy their labour or do you rent their labour. Here Marx is right. The commonsensical view according to which we can rent or hire bodyguards is mistaken. We do not rent bodyguards, we buy the services of bodyguards for given time periods. (See also escort agencies.) Why is this ontologically different from renting? Because when you rent something, this thing exists for a period of time beyond the rental time, and can in principle be rented again. Services, however, are time- perishable.

99. 99 Surely you can rent a bodyguard, because the bodyguard exists for a longer period of time than the time in which you rent him. A service is the actualization of a disposition. Therefore you cannot render the same service twice. (Type-token distinction. Every haircut is unique.) Hill: A service is the outcome of an activity (it is a change as result, rather than a change as action) Problem with this is e.g. preventive medicine, which are activities designed to prevent certain outcomes. Services are in some ways analogous to public goods. They manifest the features of non-excludability and non-rivalry. The same service provider can provide consecutive services. Modern telecommunications services, theater performances, can provide the same service simultaneously to many people. Theater performances are impure public goods (club goods).

100. 100 Ontological categories we need: 1. Continuants (things, substances) 1a. Persons 1b. Material things 2. Processes 2a. Willed processes (processes produced on demand) 2a. (i) Actions 2b. (ii) Processes in material things produced on demand (explosion) 2b. Natural processes (a tree growing) 2c. Mental processes

101. 101 3. States (which may be the outcomes of processes) 3a. Mental states (happiness) 3b. Physical states of persons (health) 3c. Physical states of material things (plumbing system) 4. Dispositions? Are they are subclass of states?

102. 102 5. Settings 5a. Of purchase 5b. Of delivery (for commodities) 5c. Of use (for commodities) 5d. Of delivery (for services)

103. 103 6. Transcategorial packages (Bundles): Augmented products – car plus warranty, etc. Bundled club memberships, service contracts. Augmented services: Appendectomy (services plus thread...)

104. 104 When you buy a CD Rom you sign a license agreement. Buying a CD Rom is like renting software? Axiom: When you buy a service you also buy a delivery setting. And the delivery setting has the same temporal extent as the service itself. The delivery setting for commodities is transient. They bring you the car and leave.

105. 105 Can you buy a setting? Real estate industry? When you buy real estate, you buy its setting. Real estate is like services in that its setting is enduring for as long as it. Adam Smith: real estate is the only economic good that is not perishable. What is the real estate just the land, or the land as realized for a certain purpose?

106. 106 All advertizing agencies have posh offices, settings which prove their creativity. Transport services: Analysis: 1. Logistics advice = pure service 2. Driving, loading, unloading = pure service 3. Truck for a certain length of time Becker, Household production function: the household produces the holiday Services = production and consumption coincide