1. Mineral Resources

2. Resource Use U.S. has 5% of World Population U.S. Consumes 1/4 of World Resources BUT U.S. Produces 1/4 of Global GDP BUT Much of our GNP is consumed internally

3. Mineral Resources Building Stone, Sand, Gravel, Limestone Non-metallic Minerals Sulfur, Gypsum, Coal, Barite, Salt, Clay, Feldspar, Gem Minerals, Abrasives, Borax, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Phosphates, Silica, Fluorite, Asbestos, Mica Metallic Minerals Ferrous: Iron and Steel, Cobalt, Nickel Metallic Minerals Non-ferrous: Copper, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Aluminum, Titanium, Manganese, Magnesium, Mercury, Vanadium, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Silver, Gold, Platinum Energy Resources Fossil Fuels: Coal, Oil, Natural Gas Uranium Geothermal Energy

4. Metal Prices: Nov. 9, 2011 US Dollars/Lb. Aluminum.9494 Copper 3.5473 Lead.9051 Nickel 8.4210 Tin 10.0698 Zinc.8859 Molybdenum 14.1748 Cobalt 13.3810 US Dollars/Troy Oz.(31.1 gm) Gold 1,798.40 Silver 35.137 Palladium 677.15 Platinum1,670.60 Iron Ore (62% Fe) $130/ton

5. Types of Ore Deposits Magmatic Pt, Cr, Fe, Ni, Ti, Diamond Pegmatite Li, Be, U, Rare Earths, Feldspar, Mica, Gems Hydrothermal 600 C: W, Sn 400 C: Au, U, Ag, Co, Mo 200 C: Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb Cool: Hg, As Sedimentary Rocks Fe, Cu, U, Mn, Mg Weathering Secondary Enrichment: – Cu, Ni Soils – Al, Ni Placer Pt, Au, Sn, Ti, W, Th, Rare Earths U (Fossil), Gems

6. Magmatic Ore Deposits Usually as segregations in mafic or ultramafic intrusions Settle because of high density and low magma viscosity Chromite often in serpentine bodies – Originally segregated in ultramafic rocks – Possibly mechanically concentrated by deformation Diamonds in kimberlites

7. Magmatic Ore Deposits Platinum – Bushveld Complex Iron – Kiruna, Sweden Carbonatite Ores Nickel – Sudbury, Ontario – Thompson, Manitoba

8. Pegmatite Ore Bodies The final water-rich residue of granitic intrusions Enriched in “reject” elements Common or simple pegmatites contain typical granite minerals plus black tourmaline Lepidolite mica typical indicator of complex pegmatites Sources of gems, mica, feldspar, lithium, rare earths (including col-tan)

9. Hydrothermal Ore Bodies 600 C: W, Sn in granites 400 C: Au, U, Ag, Co, Mo, Cu – Gold-Quartz deposits in metavolcanics – Porphyry Copper – Marginal ores around intrusions 200 C: Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb – Outer contact zones – Mississippi Valley ore deposits Cool: Hg, As – Hot springs, fault zones

10. Hydrothermal Alteration Core area (High T): Potassic alteration with potassium feldspar and biotite. Lower T: Sericitic or Phyllic with quartz- sericite-pyrite. Outermost: Propylitic with quartz-chlorite- epidote-carbonate-actinolite. Argillic: Low T near surface: Clay minerals

11. Metamorphic Minerals Apart from metasomatism, metamorphic rocks are not major mineral resources Ornamental stone: marble, slate, migmatite Specific metamorphic minerals – Kyanite, wollastonite for refractories – Garnet for abrasives Lateral Secretion – Metals liberated by metamorphic reactions migrate to fault zones

12. Stratiform Ore Bodies Principal ore is copper; zinc and lead also important Form in layered submarine volcanic deposits Volcanic emissions? Submarine hydrothermal activity? Ancient rift hot springs?

13. Iron Ore Rarely magmatic as magnetite (Kiruna) Pyrite common but rarely an ore Archean sedimentary deposits Proterozoic banded iron formations – Probably due to cyanobacteria – Cutoff after 1.8 Ga – Rare later deposits due to local conditions? – Snowball Earth? Oolitic iron ores

14. Residual Deposits Bauxite is an oxisol Nickel laterites in tropical countries – Ni substitutes for Mg – Very enriched in ultramafic rocks – Concentrates at water table Supergene enrichment – Cu leached out of surface zone – Concentrates at water table – Raises ore to minable grade

15. Detrital (Placer) Ores Concentrated by density Mechanical separation Gold (Sierra Nevada, Piedmont) Platinum (Russia) Tin(Malaysia) Diamonds (Namibia, West Africa) Heavy Beach Sands (Australia, Africa) – Zircon, Ilmenite, Monazite, Tungsten

16. Detrital Ores Fossil Uranium Placer Deposits – Uranium is the reverse of iron: highly oxidized state is soluble – Uraninite (UO 2 ) weathers easily today – Detrital uranium limited to Precambrian – Detrital pyrite common – Evidence of reducing atmosphere

17. Oklo, Gabon Wild fluctuations in isotopic ratios Strong depletion of U-235 Natural Fission Reactor! – Now, U-235 is 0.7% of natural uranium – 2 Ga = ½ half-life of U-238 but 3 half-lives of U- 235. – U-238 was 50% more abundant, U-235 8 times – At 2 Ga, U-235 was 4% of total U – A sufficiently large mass of U was naturally critical.

18. Oklo, Gabon Reactor probably ran for 100,000 to 1,000,000 years Moderated by interstitial water – Water needed to slow down neutrons – Excessive heat would generate steam – Steam would be less capable of slowing neutrons – Reaction would slow down No other cases discovered Mines now exhausted

19. Concentration Factors and Economics Natural Abundance Geologic Processes to Concentrate Element – Most involve water Intrinsic Value of Material Cost of Extraction from Earth – Gold versus Gravel

20. Prospecting Looking for small targets Don’t show up in gross geology Mineralization causes are subtle – But-- Knowing types of ore deposits can help identify likely places to explore 1% of sites sampled are worth a closer look – 1% of those are worth detailed exploration 1% of those are commercially viable

21. Prospecting and Exploration Satellite and Aerial Photography Remote Sensing Geological Mapping Magnetic Mapping Gravity Mapping Radioactivity Mapping Geochemical Sampling Electrical Sounding Ground-Penetrating Radar Seismic Methods – Reflection - Detailed but Expensive – Refraction - Cheap but Not Detailed Core Sampling and Well Logging

22. Drill Core

23. Geologic Map of Wisconsin

24. Gravity Map of Wisconsin

25. Magnetic Map of Wisconsin

26. Satellite Image of Wisconsin

27. Economic Factors in Mining Richness of Ore Quantity of Ore Cost of Initial Development Equipment, Excavation, Purchase of Rights Operating Costs: Wages, Taxes, Maintenance, Utilities, Regulation Price of the Product Will Price Go up or down?

28. Life Cycle of a Mine Exploration Development Active Mining – Excavation – Crushing, Milling, Flotation, Chemical Separation – Smelting and Refining – Disposal of Waste (Tailings) Shut-down

29. Sulfur Present in sulfide ores, pyrite or organic sulfur in coal, organic sulfur in petroleum Smelting or burning create SO 2 2SO 2 + O 2  2SO 3 H 2 O + SO 3  H 2 SO 4

30. Sulfuric Acid Contributor to Acid Rain – Neutralized by carbonates and mafic igneous rocks – Worst in granitic bedrock Weakens tailings piles, slopes, dams Acidifies surface water Contributes to dissolved metals