1. Intergroup Behavior, Negotiation & Team Building Chapter 9

2. Group Cohesiveness Definition(s) Cohesiveness and Performance
Commonness of attitudes or behavior
Greater force holding together than driving apart
Sense of belonging and feelings of morale
Individuals who “are attracted to each other”
Note that several of these definitions tend to be circular or confuse cause with effect.
Cohesiveness and Performance
Cohesiveness is beneficial if the group’s goals are in concert with organizational goals ….

3. Sources of Attraction to a Group/Team
The goals of the group and the members are compatible and clearly specified
The group has a charismatic leader
The group has a reputation for accomplishment
The group is small enough to have members’ opinions heard
The members support one another and help each other overcome obstacles

4. GROUP COHESIVENESS & AGREEMENT WITH ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
GROUP COHESIVENESS & AGREEMENT WITH
ORGANIZATIONAL GOALS
Agreement with organizational goals
Low
High
Performance
probably oriented
toward achievement
of organizational
goals
Performance
probably oriented
away from
organizational goals
Low
Degree of
group
cohesiveness
Performance
oriented toward achievement of organizational goals
Performance
oriented away from
organizational goals
High 7

5. Steps Managers Can Take To Enhance the Two Types of Group Cohesiveness
Socio-Emotional Cohesivness
Keep the group relatively small
Strive for a favorable public image to increase the status and prestige of belonging
Encourage interaction and cooperation
Emphasize members’ common characteristics and interests
Point out environmental threats (e.g., competitor’s achievements to rally the group)

6. Steps Managers Can Take To Enhance the Two Types of Group Cohesiveness (continued)
Instrumental Cohesivness
Regularly update and clarify the group’s goal(s)
Give every group member a vital “piece of the action”
Channel each group member’s special talents toward the common goal(s)
Recognize and equitably reinforce every member’s contributions
Frequently remind group members they need each other to get the job done

7. Trust Trust: “Reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behavior.”
Propensity to trust: “A personality trait involving one’s general willingness to trust others.”
How to Build Trust
Communication (keep everyone informed; give feedback; tell the truth)
Support (be available and approachable)
Respect (delegate; be an active listener)
Fairness (give credit where due; objectively evaluate performance)
Predictability (be consistent; keep your promises)
Competence (demonstrate good business sense and professionalism)

8. Interpersonal Trust Involves a Cognitive Leap
Faith in the other person’s good intentions Assumption that other person will behave as desired
Firsthand knowledge of other person’s reliability and integrity
Distrust
Trust

9. Basic Distinctions Among Quality Circles, Virtual Teams and Self-Managed Teams
Type of team
Type of empowerment
Members
Advice
Advice or project (usually project)
Production, project, or action
Consultation
Consultation, participation, or delegation
Delegation
Production/service personnel
Managers and technical specialists
Production/service, technical specialists

10. Basic Distinctions Among Quality Circles, Virtual Teams and Self-Managed Teams (continued)
Basis of membership
Relationship to organization
Amount of face- to-face communication
Voluntary
Assigned (some voluntary)
Assigned
Parallel
Parallel or integrated
Integrated
Strictly face- to-face
Periodic to none
Varies, depending on use of information technology

11. Survey Evidence: What Self-Managing Teams Manage
Percentage of Companies Saying Their Self-Managing Teams Perform These Traditional Management Functions by Themselves.
Schedule work assignments 67% Work with outside customers Conduct training Set production goals/quotas Work with suppliers/vendors Purchase equipment/services Develop budgets Do performance appraisals Hire co-workers Fire co-workers

12. Characteristics of an Effective Team
Clear purpose
Informality
Participation
Listening
Civilized disagreement
Consensus decisions
Open communication
Clear roles and work assignments
Shared leadership
External relations
Style diversity
Self-assessment

13. Eight Attributes of High-Performance Teams:
Participative leadership. Creating an interdependency by empowering, freeing up, and serving others
Shared responsibility. Establishing an environment in which all team members feel as responsible as the manager for the performance of the work unit
Aligned on purpose. Having a sense of common purpose about why the team exists and the function it serves
High communication. Creating a climate of trust and open, honest communication
Future focused. Seeing change as an opportunity for growth
Focused on task. Keeping meetings focused on results
Creative talents. Applying individual talents and creativity
Rapid response. Identifying and acting on opportunities

14. Why Work Teams Fail Mistakes typically made by management
Teams cannot overcome weak strategies and poor business practices
Hostile environment for teams (command-and-control culture; competitive/individual reward plans; management resistance)
Teams adopted as a fad, a quick-fix; no long-term commitment
Lessons from one team not transferred to others (limited experimentation with teams)
Vague or conflicting team assignments
Inadequate team skills training
Poor staffing of teams
Lack of trust

15. Why Work Teams Fail Problems typically experienced by team members
Team tries to do too much too soon
Conflict over differences in personal work styles (and/or personality conflicts)
Too much emphasis on results, not enough on team processes and group dynamics
Unanticipated obstacle causes team to give up
Resistance to doing things differently
Poor interpersonal skills (aggressive rather than assertive communication, destructive conflict, win-lose negotiation)
Poor interpersonal chemistry (loners, dominators, self-appointed experts do not fit in)
Lack of trust

16. Conflict
Conflict: “A process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.”
Functional conflict serves the organization’s interests while dysfunctional conflict threatens the organization’s interests.

17. The Relationship between Conflict Intensity and Outcomes
Low
Moderate Intensity
High
Too little conflict
Appropriate conflict
Too much conflict
Negative
Neutral
Positive
Outcomes
Source: LD Brown, Managing Conflict of Organizational Interfaces, © 1986, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, Massachusetts. Figure 1.1 on page 8.

18. Why do we try to eliminate conflict?
Ingrained – reinforced at home, school, church
Managers are often evaluated and rewarded for lack of conflict – part of the culture of the organization
Avoid disturbing the status quo “If it isn’t broke”… do you break it or move on?

19. Antecedents of Conflict
Incompatible personalities or value systems.
Overlapping or unclear job boundaries.
Competition for limited resources.
Interdepartment/intergroup competition.
Differences in perceptions or inaccurate perceptions
Inadequate communication.
Functional differences – line and staff; production & marketing
Interdependent tasks.
Organizational complexity.

20. Antecedents of Conflict (continued)
Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules.
Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure.
Collective decision making.
Decision making by consensus.
Unmet expectations.
Unresolved or suppressed conflict.

21. Conflict Outcomes
Agreement: Strive for equitable and fair agreements that last. Search for solutions (Functional consequence)
Stronger relationships: Build bridges of cohesiveness, goodwill and trust for the future. (Functional consequence)
Learning: Greater self-awareness and creative problem solving. Change and adapt. (Functional consequence)
Focus on activity: become task oriented; less concern for individual satisfaction – defeat the enemy. (Dysfunctional consequence)
Develop loyalty – conformance to norms tends to become important in conflict situations. (Dysfunctional consequence)

22. Conflict Outcomes
Distorted perceptions: members may develop stronger opinions of the importance of their unit. Survival of the fittest. (Dysfunctional consequence)
Negative stereotyping: as conflict rises, stereotypes are reinforced. See fewer distances in your group and greater differences between groups than really exist. (Dysfunctional consequence)
Decreased communication: decision-making process can be disrupted. (Dysfunctional consequence)
Also – violence and aggression. (Dysfunctional consequence)

23. An Updated Contact Model for Minimizing Intergroup Conflict
Level of perceived
intergroup conflict tends to increase when:
Recommended actions:
Work to eliminate specific negative interactions between groups (and members).
Conduct team building to reduce intragroup conflict and prepare employees for cross-functional teamwork.
Encourage personal friendships and good working relationships across groups and departments.
Foster positive attitudes toward members of other groups (empathy, compassion, sympathy).
Avoid or neutralize negative gossip across groups or departments.
Conflict within the group is high
There are negative interactions between groups (or between members of those groups)
Influential third-party gossip about other group is negative

24. Ways to Build Cross-Cultural Relationships
Behavior Rank
Be a good listener 1
Be sensitive to the needs of others 2
Be cooperative, rather than overly competitive 2
Advocate inclusive (participative) leadership 3
Compromise rather than dominate 4
Build rapport through conversations 5
Be compassionate and understanding 6
Avoid conflict by emphasizing harmony 7
Nurture others (develop and mentor) 8
Tie

25. Managing Intergroup Conflict through Resolution
Problem-solving: reduce tensions through face-to-face meetings of conflicting groups. Identify conflicts and resolve them. Involves identifying all issues, debates, and decision-making.
Superordinate goals: develop a common set of goals and objectives that can’t be obtained without the cooperation of groups involved.
Resources: Try to expand resource if the source of conflict is limited resources
Avoidance: effective only in short-term. Does not resolve or eliminate conflict – eventually it must be faced.
Smoothing: emphasize the common interest of the conflicting groups and de-emphasize their differences. Manager does not take sides – may only be a short-term solution.

26. Managing Intergroup Conflict through Resolution
Compromise: No distinct winner or loser – not an ideal situation for either group.
Authoritative command: management steps in and expresses desires to groups. Subs usually follow; whether or not they agree with it. Again, short-run solution.
Altering the human variable: changing human behavior
Altering structural variables: change the formal structure of the group. Changing members, identify a coordinator.
Identifying a common enemy: groups in conflict may unit to defeat a common enemy.

27. Five Conflict-Handling Styles
Integrating
Obliging
Dominating
Avoiding
Compromising
High
Low
Concern for Others
Concern for Self
Source: MA Rahim, “A Strategy for Managing Conflict in Complex Organizations, Human Relations, January 1985, p 84. Used with author’s permission.

28. Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) Techniques
Facilitation: Third party gets disputants to deal directly and constructively with each other.
Conciliation: Neutral third party acts as communication link between disputants.
Peer review: Impartial co-workers hear both sides and render decision that may or may not be binding.
Ombudsman: Respected and trusted member of the organization hears grievances confidentially.
Mediation: Trained third-party guides disputants toward their own solution.
Arbitration: Neutral third-party hears both sides in a court-like setting and renders a binding decision.

29. Group Negotiations
“A give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with different preferences.”
Only successful negotiations have all parties walking away feeling like they have won. Managers can:
Understand the other side. Identify all needs and positions of the other group(s). Must ask questions. Attempt free exchange of information.
Know all options: develop, understand, and evaluate options to resolve the conflict. Outcomes may differ if issue is renegotiated.

30. Questionable/Unethical Tactics in Negotiation
Lies
Puffery
Deception
Weakening the opponent
Strengthening one’s own position
Nondisclosure
Information exploitation
Change of mind
Distraction
Maximization

31. Negotiation Tactics Good cop/bad cop
Nibble: receiving an additional concession after an agreement has been reached.
Joint problem solving: what can be done so that both sides win?
Power of competition: outsource the group (or put the fear of that on the table)
Splitting the difference: useful if groups are at an impasse
Low-balling: lower other groups expectations