1. Quasi experiemtal designs and field research

2. Variations in classical experiments Post test only designs Post test only designs Used when pretesting might affect the results Used when pretesting might affect the results To assess this could use a 4 group design, experimental pre-post To assess this could use a 4 group design, experimental pre-post Experimental post Experimental post Control pre-post Control pre-post Control post Control post

3. Non-equivalent groups Comparison group rather than control group (difference is random assignment) Comparison group rather than control group (difference is random assignment) Use of matching Use of matching Widom’s study of child abuse and criminality Widom’s study of child abuse and criminality Abused matched with a non-abused group on gender, race, age, and SES Abused matched with a non-abused group on gender, race, age, and SES Problem with matching Problem with matching

4. Non-equivalent Predicting parole risk Predicting parole risk Use of LSI Use of LSI 3 jails, one (comparison) not informed of LSI scores 3 jails, one (comparison) not informed of LSI scores In all groups, LSI predictive of further recidivism In all groups, LSI predictive of further recidivism Jails who knew LSI scores released more low risk offenders Jails who knew LSI scores released more low risk offenders

5. Non-equivalent Telephone service areas with caller ID compared to those without services to observe effects on obscene phone calls Telephone service areas with caller ID compared to those without services to observe effects on obscene phone calls Would be deceptive if there are differences in obscene phone calls from area to area—probably not the case Would be deceptive if there are differences in obscene phone calls from area to area—probably not the case Less complaints in caller ID areas Less complaints in caller ID areas

6. Cohorts Using a particular group that all begin at the same time, compare to a group that began at another time. Make assumption of equivalence Using a particular group that all begin at the same time, compare to a group that began at another time. Make assumption of equivalence i.e., compare graduate students who started in 2003 with those who started in 2004 i.e., compare graduate students who started in 2003 with those who started in 2004 Police class, those sentenced to probation in a particular month, etc. Police class, those sentenced to probation in a particular month, etc.

7. Time series designs Interrupted time series design Interrupted time series design Take baseline data, make an intervention, collect data Take baseline data, make an intervention, collect data See p. 196 See p. 196 First example, general trend, not clear that the intervention made a difference First example, general trend, not clear that the intervention made a difference Current downward trend in crime Current downward trend in crime

8. Time series Second pattern: random fluctuation Second pattern: random fluctuation 3 rd pattern: immediate effect (in this example, incapacitation) 3 rd pattern: immediate effect (in this example, incapacitation) 4 th pattern: more gradual effect (deterrence?) 4 th pattern: more gradual effect (deterrence?) Interrupted time series with nonequivalent comparison group Interrupted time series with nonequivalent comparison group

9. Time series Time series design with switching replications Time series design with switching replications If similar changes occur in DV in different places at different times, corresponding to when the intervention was introduced, it makes it likely that the IV did affect the DV If similar changes occur in DV in different places at different times, corresponding to when the intervention was introduced, it makes it likely that the IV did affect the DV

10. Field research Best for topics that can best be understood in their natural setting Best for topics that can best be understood in their natural setting Example: nonverbal behaviors Example: nonverbal behaviors Relationship between environmental design and crime requires observation of the environment Relationship between environmental design and crime requires observation of the environment Pedestrians before and after street lighting was enhanced Pedestrians before and after street lighting was enhanced

11. Types of participation Full participant (deception, may affect what is going on, safety issues, incompatibility) Full participant (deception, may affect what is going on, safety issues, incompatibility) Observing around the periphery of criminal activity Observing around the periphery of criminal activity Observer-as-participant: identifies self as research, interacts with subjects Observer-as-participant: identifies self as research, interacts with subjects Police patrol studies (ride along) Police patrol studies (ride along)

12. Types of participation Going native problem Going native problem Complete observer, not part of the action in any way. May be unobtrusive, or might identify oneself as a research, but no interaction Complete observer, not part of the action in any way. May be unobtrusive, or might identify oneself as a research, but no interaction Less able to ask questions Less able to ask questions

13. Observation Observe, sometimes ask questions Observe, sometimes ask questions Questions are often more spontaneous, unstructured “informal conversational interview” Questions are often more spontaneous, unstructured “informal conversational interview” Listening and probes Listening and probes

14. Gaining access Formal organizations Formal organizations Sponsor, letter, phone call, meeting Sponsor, letter, phone call, meeting Gaining access to subcultures Gaining access to subcultures Sponsor/informant Sponsor/informant May be people working with criminals, such as caseworkers, police, probation, lawyers, private investigators, treatment centers, ex-offenders, hangouts May be people working with criminals, such as caseworkers, police, probation, lawyers, private investigators, treatment centers, ex-offenders, hangouts

15. Selecting subjects Snowball sampling Snowball sampling Potential biases, i.e., only people who have been caught or treated Potential biases, i.e., only people who have been caught or treated Purposive sampling, sampling dimensions Purposive sampling, sampling dimensions Group, location, time, weather Group, location, time, weather

16. Recording observations Cameras to take photos Cameras to take photos Video recordings Video recordings Tape recorders Tape recorders Field notes—what we know, what we think happened Field notes—what we know, what we think happened Sketchy notes, expand later, write out everything Sketchy notes, expand later, write out everything Unstructured observation Unstructured observation

17. Recording observations Structured observations Structured observations Instruments to guide observations Instruments to guide observations Environmental surveys (BJA), may be used to plan strategies Environmental surveys (BJA), may be used to plan strategies Other observations Other observations Possibilities listed, recorded with details as they happen Possibilities listed, recorded with details as they happen

18. Combining with other data Linking research methods Linking research methods i.e., combining observational studies of neighborhoods with surveys of resident perceptions and crime statistics i.e., combining observational studies of neighborhoods with surveys of resident perceptions and crime statistics

19. Examples of studies Shoplifters Shoplifters How much? How much is identified? How much? How much is identified? Participant observation—participants pretended to be shoppers Participant observation—participants pretended to be shoppers # shoppers who stole divided total # of shoppers # shoppers who stole divided total # of shoppers Sampled days and times Sampled days and times

20. Shoplifters Everyone who entered the store was counted Everyone who entered the store was counted Systematic random sampling used to select subjects Systematic random sampling used to select subjects Subjects followed and observed Subjects followed and observed # thefts divided by the total observed # thefts divided by the total observed

21. shoplifters To determine detection rates, research staff were used as confederate shoplifters and some of them were observed by research staff assigned to make observations (double blind) To determine detection rates, research staff were used as confederate shoplifters and some of them were observed by research staff assigned to make observations (double blind) Reliability of observers could thus be assessed Reliability of observers could thus be assessed Reliability could then be used to adjust shoplifting rates Reliability could then be used to adjust shoplifting rates

22. Other studies Seat belts—how many people where seat belts? Seat belts—how many people where seat belts? Sampled time of day, type of road and observation site, density of auto ownership Sampled time of day, type of road and observation site, density of auto ownership Explicit instructions p. 307 Explicit instructions p. 307

23. Racial profiling Problem with comparing race of drivers stopped with race of distribution for a resident population (i.e., more non- residents may be stopped) Problem with comparing race of drivers stopped with race of distribution for a resident population (i.e., more non- residents may be stopped) Estimate of drivers by observing race from toll booths Estimate of drivers by observing race from toll booths Estimate of # of cars eligible to be stopped Estimate of # of cars eligible to be stopped

24. Profiling Having observers drive 5 miles over speed limit, count the number speeding and their race Having observers drive 5 miles over speed limit, count the number speeding and their race Lambeth’s study—blacks 13.5% of drivers, 15% of those speeding. 35% stopped were black and 73% of those arrested after the stop were black. Lambeth’s study—blacks 13.5% of drivers, 15% of those speeding. 35% stopped were black and 73% of those arrested after the stop were black. However, speeding not the only violation However, speeding not the only violation

25. Profiling Lange study—examined only cases going 15 or more miles over the speed limit Lange study—examined only cases going 15 or more miles over the speed limit Bars and violence: illustrates flexibility of the method, changed study from one examining why bars were violent (even at violent bars, a low frequency behavior) to what situations led to violence Bars and violence: illustrates flexibility of the method, changed study from one examining why bars were violent (even at violent bars, a low frequency behavior) to what situations led to violence

26. Bars Young working class, two groups in an encounter where they are strangers Young working class, two groups in an encounter where they are strangers Crowded, no entertainment Crowded, no entertainment High level of drunkenness (cheap drinks) High level of drunkenness (cheap drinks) Over aggressive bouncers Over aggressive bouncers