1. Soil Crusts, Nutrient Heterogeneity & Rangeland Degradation Assessments in Kalahari rangelands Andrew Dougill & Andrew Thomas

2. Kalahari Degradation Perspectives Main degradation problems viewed as - Bush encroachment Declines in palatable grass cover Soil erosion on arable lands Permanence of ecological changes dependent on - Soil hydrochemical characteristics Fire and rainfall regimes

3. Resilience of Kalahari Sand Soils - Evidence & Implications Rangeland ecological changes occur without soil profile changes => livestock management practices lead directly to changes, and could potentially reverse trends Nutrient-enriched sub-canopies retain nutritious grass cover to enable rehabilitation of ‘degraded’ rangelands Soil erosion minimal with low associated nutrient loss

4. Soil Studies on Kalahari Sand Soils in Mixed Farming Systems Is the classification of mixed farming regions on Kalahari sands, as moderately degraded by wind erosion, applicable ? –Limited aeolian sediment transport losses imply soil erosion not a major problem, with chemical soil degradation the main concern

5. Resilience of Kalahari Sand Soils - Evidence & Causes Nutrient adsorption at surface due to biological crusts Sub-canopy enrichment due to sediment & organic inputs, and maintenance of undisturbed crusts Erosion losses limited by rapid formation of surface aggregates and soil crusts

6. Dryland Soil Crusts - Form and Function Biological soil crusts reported for drylands globally, consisting of various assemblages of cyanobacteria, bacteria, fungi, lichens, algae, mosses & liverworts Important functions include - –Moisture retention –Erosion prevention –Nitrogen fixation –Carbon sequestration –Nutrient adsorption No previous studies in Southern Africa => aim to classify and explain distribution and degradation implications

7. Kalahari Soil Crusts - Research Design & Methods Distribution mapping in SW Botswana, E Namibia and Molopo Basin (SA/Bots) shown extensive regional cover Molopo Basin used to investigate impact of substrate, disturbance and bush canopies on crust formation

8. Kalahari Crusts - Classification Scheme Classification scheme developed uses crust form and morphology to provide rapid, objective assessment

9. Crust Characteristics Hardness of crusts  ’s with stage showing  erodibility Chlorophyll content  ’s with stage indicating  cyanobacteria and crust succession C sequestration and N speciation to be investigated

10. Crust Cover by Substrate High biological crust cover on all soil types, though higher successional stages less on Kalahari sands

11. Crust Cover & Disturbance Crusts resilient to disturbance, except with higher successional stages

12. Crusts and Vegetation Typically, crusts found in protected sub-canopy sites

13. Kalahari Soil Crusts - Formation and Implications Crust formation and succession leads to increased soil heterogeneity. Sub-canopy sites become fertile patches responsible for much of the nutrient cycling and also nutritious grass cover  soil heterogeneity occurs without sediment movement  soil heterogeneity  degradation (as per US models)

14. Kalahari Soil Crusts - Chemical Resilience & Further Studies Rapid formation of surface crusts after rainfall will limit leaching losses and erosion Nitrogen fixation and mineralisation likely to be increased - to be investigated by process-based studies Role in C sequestration largely unknown