1. Newton, Einstein, and Gravity
Chapter 5
Newton, Einstein, and Gravity

2. Guidepost
If only Renaissance astronomers had understood gravity, they wouldn’t have had so much trouble describing the motion of the planets, but that insight didn’t appear until three decades after the trial of Galileo. Isaac Newton, starting from the work of Galileo, devised a way to explain motion and gravity, and that allowed astronomers to understand orbital motion and tides. Then, in the early 20th century, Albert Einstein found an even better way to describe motion and gravity.
This chapter is about gravity, the master of the universe. Here you will find answers to five essential questions:
What happens when an object falls?
How did Newton discover gravity?
How does gravity explain orbital motion?
How does gravity explain the tides?
How did Einstein better describe motion and gravity?

3. Guidepost (continued)
Gravity rules. The moon orbiting Earth, matter falling into black holes, and the overall structure of the universe are dominated by gravity. As you study gravity, you will see science in action and find answers to three important questions:
How do we know? What are the differences among a hypothesis, a theory, and a law?
How do we know? Why is the principle of cause and effect so important to scientists?
How do we know? How are a theory’s predictions useful in science?
The rest of this book will tell the story of matter and gravity. The universe is a swirling waltz of matter dancing to the music of gravity, and you are along for the ride.

4. Outline I. Galileo and Newton A. Galileo and Motion
I. Galileo and Newton
A. Galileo and Motion
B. Newton and the Laws of Motion
C. Mutual Gravitation
II. Orbital Motion and Tides
A. Orbits
B. Orbital Velocity
C. Calculating Escape Velocity
D. Kepler's Laws Re-examined
E. Newton's Version of Kepler's Third Law
F. Tides and Tidal Forces
G. Astronomy After Newton
III. Einstein and Relativity
A. Special Relativity
B. The General Theory of Relativity
C. Confirmation of the Curvature of Space-Time

5. Mathematics as a tool for understanding physics
A New Era of Science
Mathematics as a tool for understanding physics

6. Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) Major achievements:
Building on the results of Galileo and Kepler
Adding physics interpretations to the mathematical descriptions of astronomy by Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler
Major achievements:
Invented Calculus as a necessary tool to solve mathematical problems related to motion
Discovered the three laws of motion
Discovered the universal law of mutual gravitation

7. Velocity and Acceleration
Acceleration (a) is the change of a body’s velocity (v) with time (t): a
a = Dv/Dt
Velocity and acceleration are directed quantities (vectors)! v
Different cases of acceleration:
Acceleration in the conventional sense (i.e. increasing speed)
Deceleration (i.e. decreasing speed)
Change of the direction of motion (e.g., in circular motion)

8. Acceleration of Gravity
Acceleration of gravity is independent of the mass (weight) of the falling object!
Iron ball
Wood ball
Difficult to verify on Earth because of air resistance; but astronauts could verify it easily on the moon

9. Newton’s Laws of Motion (1)
A body continues at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by some net force.
An astronaut floating in space will continue to float forever in a straight line unless some external force is accelerating him/her.

10. Newton’s Laws of Motion (2)
The acceleration a of a body is inversely proportional to its mass m, directly proportional to the net force F, and in the same direction as the net force.
a = F/m  F = m a

11. Newton’s Laws of Motion (3)
To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The same force that is accelerating the boy forward, is accelerating the skateboard backward.

12. The Universal Law of Gravity
Any two bodies are attracting each other through gravitation, with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance: Mm
F = - G r2
(G is the Universal constant of gravity.)

13. Understanding Orbital Motion
The universal law of gravity allows us to understand orbital motion of planets and moons:
Example:
Earth and moon attract each other through gravitation.
Since Earth is much more massive than the moon, the moon’s effect on Earth is small. Dv v v’
Earth’s gravitational force constantly accelerates the moon towards Earth.
Moon F
This acceleration is constantly changing the moon’s direction of motion, holding it on its almost circular orbit.
Earth

14. Orbital Motion (2)
In order to stay on a closed orbit, an object has to be within a certain range of velocities:
Too slow => Object falls back down to Earth
Too fast => Object escapes Earth’s gravity

15. Geosynchronous Orbits

16. Kepler’s Third Law Explained by Newton
Balancing the force (called “centripetal force (向心力)”) necessary to keep an object in circular motion with the gravitational force  expression equivalent to Kepler’s third law
Py2 = aAU3

17. Excess gravity pulls water towards the moon on the near side
The Tides
Caused by the difference of the Moon’s gravitational attraction on the water on Earth
Forces are balanced at the center of the Earth
Excess gravity pulls water towards the moon on the near side
Excess centrifugal force pushes water away from the moon on the far side
 2 tidal maxima
 12-hour cycle

18. Spring and Neap Tides
The Sun is also producing tidal effects, about half as strong as the Moon.
Near Full and New Moon, those two effects add up to cause spring tides (大潮).
Near first and third quarter, the two effects work at a right angle, causing neap tides (小潮).
Spring tides
Neap tides

19. Acceleration of the Moon’s Orbital Motion
Earth’s tidal bulges are slightly tilted in the direction of Earth’s rotation.
Gravitational force pulls the moon slightly forward along its orbit.

20. Einstein and Relativity
Einstein (1879 – 1955) noticed that Newton’s laws of motion are only correct in the limit of low velocities, much less than the speed of light.
 Theory of Special Relativity
Also, revised understanding of gravity
 Theory of General Relativity

21. Two Postulates Leading to Special Relativity (1)
Observers can never detect their uniform motion, except relative to other objects.
This is equivalent to:
The laws of physics are the same for all observers, no matter what their motion, as long as they are not accelerated.

22. Two Postulates Leading to Special Relativity (2)
The velocity of light, c, is constant and will be the same for all observers, independent of their motion relative to the light source.

23. Basics of Special Relativity
The two postulates of special relativity have some amazing consequences.
Consider thought experiment:
Motion of “stationary”observer
Assume a light source moving with velocity v relative to a “stationary” observer: v’ v v
c Dt
c Dt’
Light source
c Dt’
v Dt
Seen by an observer moving along with the light source
Seen by the “stationary” observer

24. Basics of Special Relativity (2)
Now, recall that the speed of light, c, is the same for all observers.
 The times Dt and Dt’ must be different!
Then, the Pythagorean Theorem gives:
(cDt)2 = (cDt’)2 + (vDt)2 or
Dt’ = (Dt)/g
where g = 1/(1 – [v/c]2)1/2
is the Lorentz factor.
c Dt
c Dt’
v Dt
This effect is called time dilation.

25. Other Effects of Special Relativity
Length contraction: Length scales on a rapidly moving object appear shortened
Relativistic aberration: Distortion of angles
The energy of a body at rest is not 0. Instead, we find
E0 = m c2

26. General Relativity A new description of gravity Postulate:
A new description of gravity
Postulate:
Equivalence Principle:
“Observers can not distinguish locally between inertial forces due to acceleration and uniform gravitational forces due to the presence of massive bodies.”

27. Another Thought Experiment
Imagine a light source on board a rapidly accelerated space ship:
Time
Time a
Light source a a a g
As seen by a “stationary” observer
As seen by an observer on board the space ship

28. For the accelerated observer, the light ray appears to bend downward!
Thought Experiment (2)
For the accelerated observer, the light ray appears to bend downward!
Now, we can’t distinguish between this inertial effect and the effect of gravitational forces
Thus, a gravitational force equivalent to the inertial force must also be able to bend light!

29. Thought Experiment (Conclusion)
This bending of light by the gravitation of massive bodies has indeed been observed:
During total solar eclipses:
The positions of stars apparently close to the sun are shifted away from the position of the sun.
 New description of gravity as curvature of space-time!

30. Another manifestation of bending of light: Gravitational lenses
A massive galaxy cluster is bending and focusing the light from a background object.

31. Other Effects of General Relativity
Perihelion advance (in particular, of Mercury)
Gravitational red shift: Light from sources near massive bodies seems shifted towards longer wavelengths (red).