1. CHAPTER SIX
Communication
INB 350 Lecture
By: Ms. Adina Malik (ALK)

2. Learning Objectives Basic mechanisms for Negotiation
Distortions in Communication
What is Communicated in Negotiation
How People Communicate in Negotiation
Communication Channels
How to Improve Communication in Negotiation

3. Communication in Negotiation
Communication processes, both verbal and nonverbal, are critical to achieving negotiation goals and to resolving conflicts.
Negotiation is a process of interaction
Negotiation is a context for communication subtleties that influence processes and outcomes

4. Communication Mechanisms
Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another and when you break down the art of negotiation, it's really about communication. It's about connecting and ultimately the art of compromise.

5. Basic Models of Communication
Communication is an activity that occurs between two people: a sender and a receiver
A sender has a meaning in mind and encodes this meaning into a message that is transmitted to a receiver
A receiver provides information about how the message was received and by becoming a sender and responding to, building on, or rebutting the original message (processes referred to as “feedback”)

6. Distortion in Communication
1. Senders and receivers
The more diverse their goals or the more antagonistic they are in their relationship, the greater the likelihood that distortions and errors in communication will occur
2. Transmitters and receptors
The choice of transmitter can affect outcomes
Some messages may be better spoken, others written
Poor eyesight, faulty hearing, etc. diminish the ability of a receiver to receive a message accurately

7. Distortion in Communication
3. Messages
The symbolic forms by which information is communicated
The more we use symbolic communication, the more likely the symbols may not accurately communicate the meaning we intend
4. Encoding
The process by which messages are put into symbolic form
Senders are likely to encode messages in a form which receivers may not prefer

8. Distortion in Communication
5. Channels
The conduits by which messages are carried from one party to another
Messages are subject to distortion from channel noise or various forms of interference
6. Decoding
The process of translating messages from their symbolic form into a form that makes sense
When people speak different languages, decoding involves higher degrees of error

9. Distortion in Communication
7. Meanings
The facts, ideas, feelings, reactions, or thoughts that exist within individuals and act as filters for interpreting the decoded messages
Those filters can introduce distortions
8. Feedback
The process by which the receiver reacts to the sender’s message
Absence of feedback can contribute to significant distortions
Feedback can distort communication by influencing the offers negotiators make

10. What Is Communicated during Negotiation?
Five different categories of communication that take place during negotiation:
Offers, counteroffers, and motives
Information about alternatives
Information about outcomes
Social accounts
Communication about process

11. Offers, Counteroffers & Motives
Negotiators motivation explains their preferences and has powerful influence on the negotiation’s outcome
Assumptions:
Communication of offers is a dynamic process
The offer process is interactive
Various internal and external factors drive the interaction
Thus offer-counter-offer process is dynamic and interactive, and subject to situational and environmental constraints

12. Information about Alternatives
Knowing your BATNA allows you to determine whether the outcome of your negotiation is a success.
Research substantiated that-
parties possessing attractive BATNA set higher reservation price
parties possessing weaker BATNA set lower reservation point
If both the parties are aware about each others BATNA the potential for reaching more positive negotiation outcome increases.

13. Information about Outcomes
Negotiators feels less positive about their outcome if they found out that the other negotiator had done better
Thus negotiators should be cautious about sharing their outcomes or even their positive reactions to outcomes with other party , especially if they want to pursue long- term relationship

14. Social Accounts
Social accounts have been identified as communications that can mitigate the negative impact of unfavorable outcomes
Negotiators need to explain things to other party especially when the need to justify bad news.
Explanations of mitigating circumstances
Explanations of exonerating circumstances
Reframing explanations

15. Communication about Process
During negotiation communication could also be directed towards the process, for example If opponents are pursuing hardball tactics then parties could directly call attention towards their contentious actions and explicitly label it as counterproductive

16. How People Communicate in Negotiation
Use of language: language operates at two levels
Logical level (proposals, offers)
Pragmatic level (semantics, syntax, style)
Researchers identified five linguistic dimensions of making threats-
Use of polarized language
Conveyance of verbal immediacy
Degree of language intensity
Degree of lexical diversity
Extent of high/low power language style

17. How People Communicate in Negotiation
As suggested by the researchers threats could be made more credible and more compelling by negatively polarized description of the other party and their position, high immediacy, high intensity, high lexical diversity and a distinctive high power style

18. How People Communicate in Negotiation
Use of nonverbal communication: it is also known as attending behaviors
Making eye contact: it’s a way to show that you are paying attention, however, this perception differs across culture
Adjusting body position
Nonverbally encouraging or discouraging what the other says: face to face interaction stimulate rapport which in turn enhances coordination and led to higher joint gains.

19. Communication Channel Selection
People can communicate through variety of communication media.
Face- to-Face Interaction
Telephone
Writing
Electronic Channels
Communication is experienced differently when it occurs through different channels
Key variation that distinguishes one communication channel from another is social presence.

20. Communication Channel Selection
Face- to-Face Interaction:
In F2F negotiation interacting parties could more easily develop personal rapport
Social clues are communicated more easily compared to other channels
Research showed that in F2F communication negotiators are more inclined to disclose information more truthfully, increasing their ability to attain mutual gain

21. Communication Channel Selection
Telephone:
Negotiating on the telephone is generally far less satisfying than F2F communication. We are deprived of the opportunity to observe the social cues of the people with whom we are negotiating.
Telephone negotiation is often most effective when it is a follow-up to in person conversations.
Nonetheless, negotiating on the telephone is more satisfying than doing so using letters, faxes, or . At least on the telephone we can hear if someone is hesitating, we can listen for the tone of their voice.

22. Communication Channel Selection
In order to negotiate effectively on the telephone we need to consider a few rules that also apply to face-to-face negotiation
We should be well-prepared. It is a good idea to have a clear sense, or at least informed assumptions, about what interests are most important to ourselves and the person with whom we are negotiating. Doing a good job of homework can be crucial.
One of the worst things about telephone negotiation, and negotiation in general, is when we forget to pay attention to particular points.

23. Communication Channel Selection
3. One crucial rule of negotiation, to Listen Actively, is particularly important in telephone negotiations since sound is the only medium of communication involved. 4. Don't let the immediacy of a telephone call force you into fast, unwise decisions.

24. Communication Channel Selection
Written Communication
Written communication convey less social clues than the other two channels
However, one’s choice of words and the way they are arranged can certainly convey tone, in formality and emotion
Additionally, Written communications may have gone through several drafts, which helps to “level the playing field”; telephone conversations are less likely to follow a carefully- crafted script.

25. Communication Channel Selection
Electronic Channels:
The use of network mediated information technologies in negotiation is referred as Virtual Negotiation
is another form of written communication that happens to involve electronic transmission
In people could also use text based emoticons to convey emotional social cues in the message
There is evidence that negotiation through written channels is more likely to end in impasse
There is also evidence that negotiators reach agreements that are more equal than F2F negotiators

26. Four Biases that Threaten E-mail Negotiations
1. Temporal synchrony bias
Tendency for negotiators to behave as if they are in a synchronous situation when they are not
2. Burned bridge bias
Tendency to do risky things during that would not be used in a face-to-face encounter
3. Squeaky wheel bias
Tendency to use a negative emotional style
4. Sinister attribution bias
Overlooking the role of situational factors

27. How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
Use of questions: two basic categories
Manageable
Cause attention or prepare the other person’s thinking for further questions:
“May I ask you a question?”
getting information
“How much will this cost?”
generating thoughts
“Do you have any suggestions for improving this?”

28. How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
Use of questions: two basic categories
Unmanageable questions
Cause difficulty
“Where did you get that dumb idea?”
Give information
“Didn’t you know we couldn’t afford this?”
Bring the discussion to a false conclusion
“Don’t you think we have talked about this enough?”

29. How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
Listening: three major forms
Passive listening: Receiving the message while providing no feedback to the sender
Acknowledgment: Receivers nod their heads, maintain eye contact, or interject responses
Active listening: Receivers restate or paraphrase the sender’s message in their own language

30. How to Improve Communication in Negotiation
Role reversal
Negotiators understand the other party’s positions by actively arguing these positions until the other party is convinced that he or she is understood
Impact and success of the role-reversal technique
Effective in producing cognitive changes and attitude changes
When the positions are compatible, likely to produce acceptable results; when the positions are incompatible, may inhibit positive change
Not necessarily effective overall as a means of inducing agreement between parties

31. Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations
Avoiding fatal mistakes
Keeping track of what you expect to happen
Systematically guarding yourself against self-serving expectations
Reviewing the lessons from feedback for similar decisions in the future
Achieving closure
Avoid surrendering important information needlessly
Refrain from making “dumb remarks”