1. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.1 Chapter 14 Designing Qualitative Research Variety of methodologies Researcher is primary data collection instrument Participation and observation are integrated Focuses on specific interactants in specific communication contexts and events

2. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.2 Researcher’s Role in Qualitative Methodologies Role of researcher is integrated within the context of individuals being observed In the research context for extended periods of time Observes the communication firsthand

3. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.3 Forms of Participant Observation Complete participant Participant-as-observer Observer-as-participant Complete observer

4. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.4 Intimate Role of the Researcher Observation is theory-laden Researcher may develop social and emotional relationships Researcher may find it difficult to distance him/herself to draw conclusions Researcher may be overinfluenced by first impressions

5. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.5 Developing Trust Trust must be addressed due to researcher’s intimate role with participants Must be addressed in first contact Trust is person-specific Trust is established over time Trust can be destroyed with one event Trust between researchers and participants is paramount

6. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.6 Identifying the Research Focus Is the research question personally interesting or compelling? Should be contextually bound Each project will result in a unique design solution Develop a purpose statement as a road map Consider researcher’s flexibility to fit in

7. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.7 Consulting the Literature Become familiar with content literature Terminology or practices in this setting Theories that can be supported or refuted Become familiar with research which used the method you’re planning to use Become familiar with research techniques before gaining access

8. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.8 Research Questions or Hypotheses? Qualitative tends to emphasize description and explanation Hypotheses are rare More common Research question or series of questions Research purpose or objective

9. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.9 Gaining Access Consider What would you tell the people you approach that you wanted to study? What if they asked why you want to study them? Always consider alternative ways of gaining access Researcher can still invade personal space or private conversations in public settings

10. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.10 Gaining Access If you take on a covert role, your acceptance by others depends on your ability to play the part Consider a gatekeeper or sponsor Will your observations provide the data you need? Is the setting suitable? Can you observe what you want to observe? Will your observations be feasible? Can you observe in such a way that you are not suspect to others?

11. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.11 Becoming Familiar with People and Places Draw a map of the interaction setting Take a tour Ask for relevant background Develop rapport Ask simple questions Learn people’s names and titles Identify a key informant

12. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.12 Sampling Qualitative Data Impossible to observe every interaction of all interactants Determine the sample by identifying settings, persons, activities, events, and time Distinguish between routine, special, and untoward events Randomly selecting days and times increases the representativeness of your observations

13. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.13 Successful Observation Observing is purposeful not accidental Be aware of the interdependence among people observed, their social situation, and the context Observe for prolonged periods of time Observation strategies Seamless container Ask questions Write descriptive then analytical notes

14. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.14 Field Notes Field notes – created on the spot; a sequential record of what was observed Read through and reflect immediately after leaving the scene Jot down additional detail or questions Number and date each page Take lots of notes – more than you believe are necessary

15. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.15 Taking Notes with Audio or Videotaping Depends on the situation and researcher role Some people are uncomfortable with recording devices Even the best recordings cannot capture the full spectrum of nonverbal behavior Recording devices can fail Ethically maintain the recordings – they cannot be played for others or circulated

16. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.16 If You Can’t Take Notes Retreat to a setting away from the interaction scene Take frequent breaks so you don’t overload your memory After leaving the interaction setting, review the notes you made – add detail and ask questions

17. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.17 What Constitutes Data in Qualitative Research? The concept of data is broadly cast in qualitative research – ranges from public to private More continuous than discrete Field notes Recordings Written or electronic documents Photographs or maps Artifacts

18. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.18 Analyzing Qualitative Data Process of identifying themes Begins just after the first data collection session Reflexive process – move back and forth between data collection and data analysis to develop and test tentative conclusions Inductive – working from specific to general

19. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.19 Analyzing Qualitative Data Read, listen to, or view every piece of data several times – immerse yourself Get sense of overall data Start broad list of themes Review the literature that guided your study Review data for these themes Spend as much time analyzing data as collecting it

20. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.20 Analyzing Qualitative Data Begin at points of conflict, tension, or contradiction Develop written summaries of themes or events Develop tables or graphs Do not discard any data

21. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.21 Triangulation Triangulation – use several kinds of methods or data to validate research outcomes Data triangulation Investigator triangulation Observe at different times and intervals Observe multiple parties over a period of time Respondent validation

22. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.22 Threats to Reliability and Validity Observations made over long periods of time Individuals observed change or mature Participant attrition Unfamiliar with communication culture being observed Presence of a political agenda Participants develop reactive effects to observer or to being observed

23. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.23 Your Impact as a Researcher Your sex, age, and ethnicity affect what you observe and how you observe it Report similarities and differences that you believe affected data collection or interpretation Use research teams with Males and females Different age groups represented Several ethnic, racial, or cultural groups represented

24. Copyright c 2001 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.24 Credibility as the Criterion Credibility may replace reliability and validity Plan for and carry out the research so that findings are believable to others Use respondent validation Participants can correct errors Participants can challenge interpretations Participants can provide their perspective